History
Indian Art, Literature and Culture
Architecture and Sculpture
Indian architecture and sculpture for CGPSC: Harappan and Mauryan art, stupas and caves, Nagara-Dravida-Vesara temples, Indo-Islamic and colonial buildings.
Prerequisites
- Indus Valley Civilisation — the first Indian town planning and the earliest sculpture.
- Magadha and the Mauryas — Ashoka, whose pillars and stupas begin the stone tradition.
- Guptas and Vakatakas — the “classical age” in which the free-standing temple was born.
The Hook: Brick at Sirpur, Stone at Bhoramdeo
Connect
Stand inside the Lakshman temple at Sirpur (Mahasamund district) and you are looking at one of India’s finest brick temples, raised in the 7th century by the Panduvanshi queen Vasata. Travel west across the plains to Bhoramdeo (Kabirdham) and you meet a stone temple of the late 11th century, its walls crowded with carved figures in a style people compare to Khajuraho.
Both are “Nagara” temples, yet they look very different. How did Indian builders move from Harappan baths and Ashokan pillars to towering temples, mosques with true arches and colonial railway stations, and how do you tell the styles apart in an MCQ?
Why it matters: Prelims P-I (India GS) regularly asks “who built X”, “which style is Y”, “match the monument with the dynasty” and “which school used which stone”. These are easy marks only if the pairs are learned exactly.
1. Harappan Architecture and Art (c. 2600–1900 BCE)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Town planning | Grid streets, covered drains, burnt-brick houses, citadel and lower town |
| Great Bath (महास्नानागार) | Mohenjo-daro; waterproofed with bitumen; probably for ritual bathing |
| Granary, dockyard | “Great Granary” at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa (function debated); dockyard at Lothal (Gujarat) |
| Dancing Girl | Bronze, Mohenjo-daro, cast by the lost-wax (cire perdue) method |
| “Priest-King” | Steatite bust with trefoil-patterned shawl, Mohenjo-daro |
| Pashupati seal | Seated figure surrounded by animals; read by some as a proto-Shiva |
| Other | Red sandstone male torso (Harappa), terracotta mother-goddess figurines |
Chhattisgarh link
The lost-wax method of the Dancing Girl survives in Bastar Dhokra (ढोकरा) casting today. See Folk Arts of Chhattisgarh.
2. Mauryan Art (c. 322–185 BCE): Court Art and Popular Art
Court art (state-sponsored):
- Ashokan pillars: monolithic, made of Chunar sandstone, with a mirror-like polish. They have no base and carry an animal capital on an inverted lotus (bell).
- Sarnath Lion Capital: four lions back to back on an abacus with four wheels (24 spokes) alternating with an elephant, a bull, a horse and a lion. It was adopted as the National Emblem on 26 January 1950, with Satyameva Jayate (from the Mundaka Upanishad) below.
- Other capitals: Rampurva (bull, now at Rashtrapati Bhavan), Lauriya-Nandangarh (lion), Sankisa (elephant).
- Stupas: Ashoka is credited with the original brick core of the Great Stupa at Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh).
- Rock-cut caves: Barabar hills (Bihar), cut for the Ajivikas. The Lomas Rishi cave has the earliest carved chaitya-arch façade.
Popular art: large Yaksha and Yakshi figures, such as the Parkham Yaksha (Mathura) and the Didarganj Yakshi (Patna), the latter famous for its polish (its Mauryan date is debated by some scholars).
Ashokan vs Persian pillars
Ashokan pillars are single shafts with no base. Achaemenid (Persian) pillars are segmented and stand on a base. Examiners use this to test “Mauryan pillars were copies of Persian pillars” (a half-truth: the polish and bell capital show contact, but the form is distinct).
3. Stupas, Chaityas and Viharas (Post-Mauryan, c. 2nd century BCE – 3rd century CE)
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Stupa (स्तूप) | Hemispherical mound (anda) over relics; harmika on top, chhatra (umbrella), railing (vedika), gateways (torana), circumambulation path (pradakshina-patha) |
| Chaitya (चैत्य) | Prayer hall with a stupa at the apsidal end |
| Vihara (विहार) | Monastery: residential cells around a hall |
| Site | Key fact |
|---|---|
| Sanchi (MP) | Ashokan core; enlarged under the Shungas; four carved toranas of the 1st century BCE (Satavahana era). UNESCO World Heritage Site (1989) |
| Bharhut (MP) | Shunga-period railings with labelled Jataka scenes; now largely in the Indian Museum, Kolkata |
| Amaravati (AP) | Satavahana and later Ikshvaku patronage; carved in greenish-white limestone, often called “marble” |
| Karle (Maharashtra) | One of the largest rock-cut chaityas |
| Udayagiri–Khandagiri (Odisha) | Jain caves of King Kharavela; Hathigumpha inscription |
Three schools of sculpture (Kushana–Satavahana age)
| School | Region / patron | Material | Style |
|---|---|---|---|
| Gandhara (गांधार) | North-west (Peshawar, Taxila); Kushanas | Grey-blue schist, stucco | Greco-Roman influence: wavy hair, heavy drapery folds, muscular realism; the Buddha in human form with a spiritual, calm face |
| Mathura (मथुरा) | Mathura; Kushanas | Spotted red sandstone | Indigenous; Buddhist, Jain and Hindu images; shaven or “snail-shell” head, transparent drapery, energetic, smiling |
| Amaravati (अमरावती) | Krishna–Godavari delta; Satavahanas | White/greenish limestone | Narrative reliefs, dynamic figures in complex poses |
Memory: G-M-A = Grey, Maroon, Alabaster-white
Gandhara = Grey schist (Greek look) · Mathura = Maroon (red) sandstone (Indian look) · Amaravati = Alabaster-white limestone (story panels).
4. Rock-Cut Caves
| Caves | Faith | Key facts |
|---|---|---|
| Ajanta (Aurangabad, Maharashtra) | Buddhist | About 30 caves in two phases: c. 2nd–1st century BCE and the 5th century CE (Vakataka patronage, minister Varahadeva under Harishena). Famous for murals. UNESCO 1983 |
| Ellora (Maharashtra) | Buddhist, Hindu, Jain | 34 caves: 1–12 Buddhist, 13–29 Hindu, 30–34 Jain. Cave 16 = Kailasa temple, carved top-down from one rock under Rashtrakuta Krishna I (8th century). UNESCO 1983 |
| Elephanta (near Mumbai) | Shaiva | Colossal Maheshmurti (Trimurti); c. 6th century. UNESCO 1987 |
| Udayagiri (Vidisha, MP) | Hindu (Gupta) | Great Varaha panel |
| Bagh (Dhar, MP) | Buddhist | Murals related to Ajanta |
| Mahabalipuram (TN) | Hindu (Pallava) | Pancha Rathas (monolithic, Narasimhavarman I “Mamalla”, 7th century); Descent of the Ganga / Arjuna’s Penance relief; structural Shore Temple (Narasimhavarman II “Rajasimha”). UNESCO 1984 |
5. Temple Architecture
Parts of a Hindu temple
graph LR
A["Ardhamandapa
entrance porch"] --> B["Mandapa
assembly hall"]
B --> C["Antarala
vestibule"]
C --> D["Garbhagriha
sanctum, main deity"]
D --> E["Shikhara (north) / Vimana (south)
tower over the sanctum"]Other terms: amalaka (ribbed stone disc on a Nagara shikhara), kalasha (pot finial), jagati (raised platform), gopuram (gateway tower, south), pradakshina-patha (path for circumambulation).
Beginnings (Gupta age): flat-roofed Temple 17 at Sanchi; the Dashavatara temple at Deogarh (Lalitpur, UP), an early example with a shikhara and a panchayatana plan; the brick temple at Bhitargaon (Kanpur). The Lakshman temple at Sirpur (7th century) continues the brick tradition in Chhattisgarh.
Nagara vs Dravida vs Vesara
| Point | Nagara (नागर) — North | Dravida (द्रविड़) — South | Vesara (वेसर) — Deccan |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tower | Curvilinear shikhara topped by amalaka | Stepped, pyramidal vimana topped by a stupi/shikhara dome | Hybrid; lower, often star-shaped (stellate) plan |
| Boundary wall | Usually none | High enclosure wall with gopurams | Varies |
| Water tank | Not typical | Temple tank inside the complex is common | — |
| Region | Between the Himalaya and the Vindhyas | Between the Krishna and Kanyakumari | Between the Vindhyas and the Krishna |
| Examples | Khajuraho, Konark, Lingaraj, Modhera, Bhoramdeo | Shore Temple, Kailasanatha (Kanchipuram), Brihadeshwara (Thanjavur), Meenakshi (Madurai) | Badami Chalukya: Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal; Hoysala: Belur, Halebidu, Somanathapura |
Key temples by dynasty
| Temple | Place | Dynasty / builder |
|---|---|---|
| Kandariya Mahadeva and the Khajuraho group | MP | Chandelas (c. 950–1050); Hindu and Jain temples; UNESCO 1986 |
| Lingaraj | Bhubaneswar | Somavamshi / Eastern Ganga period, 11th century; Odisha style (rekha deul + jagamohana) |
| Sun Temple, Konark (“Black Pagoda”) | Odisha | Narasimhadeva I (Eastern Ganga, 13th century); a chariot with 24 wheels and 7 horses; UNESCO 1984 |
| Dilwara (Vimal Vasahi) | Mount Abu | Solanki period; white marble Jain temples |
| Kailasanatha | Kanchipuram | Pallava Rajasimha (Narasimhavarman II) |
| Brihadeshwara (Rajarajeshwaram) | Thanjavur | Rajaraja I (Chola), completed c. 1010; with Gangaikondacholapuram and Darasuram forms the “Great Living Chola Temples” UNESCO site |
| Virupaksha | Pattadakal | Built by Queen Lokamahadevi (Chalukya Vikramaditya II) |
| Chennakeshava, Hoysaleswara, Keshava | Belur, Halebidu, Somanathapura | Hoysalas; soapstone, lathe-turned pillars; UNESCO 2023 |
| Ramappa | Telangana | Kakatiyas; UNESCO 2021 |
| Vitthala (stone chariot, musical pillars), Virupaksha | Hampi | Vijayanagara; tall raya gopurams and kalyana mandapas; UNESCO 1986 |
| Bhoramdeo | Kabirdham, Chhattisgarh | Phani Nagavanshis, late 11th century; often called the “Khajuraho of Chhattisgarh” |
Chhattisgarh angle
- Sirpur, Lakshman temple: brick, Vishnu, built by Queen Vasata (Panduvanshi), 7th century.
- Tala, Devrani–Jethani temples: stone; the enigmatic Rudra Shiva image.
- Rajim, Rajiv Lochan temple: Vishnu, at the confluence of the Mahanadi, Pairi and Sondur.
- Bhoramdeo: Phani Nagavanshi, not Kalachuri.
Details: Art and Temples of the Period (Chhattisgarh) and Tourism and Heritage.
6. Sculpture after the Kushanas
| Work | Facts |
|---|---|
| Sarnath Buddha (Gupta, 5th century) | Seated Buddha in dharmachakra-pravartana mudra (first sermon); serene, transparent drapery |
| Mathura standing Buddha (Gupta) | Halo, clinging drapery |
| Sultanganj Buddha | Large copper image, now in Birmingham |
| Gommateshwara (Bahubali) | Shravanabelagola (Karnataka); monolithic Jain statue about 57 feet high, c. 983 CE, set up by Chamundaraya, minister of the Western Gangas; Mahamastakabhisheka about every 12 years |
| Chola bronzes | Lost-wax; the Nataraja (Shiva as cosmic dancer) is the icon of the age |
7. Indo-Islamic Architecture (from c. 1192)
What was new: the true arch and dome (arcuate style) in place of the Indian trabeate (beam-and-lintel) style; lime mortar; calligraphy, geometric and arabesque ornament instead of human figures; charbagh gardens.
| Phase | Monuments |
|---|---|
| Mamluk (Slave) | Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque and Qutb Minar (begun by Qutbuddin Aibak, storeys completed by Iltutmish, upper storeys repaired by Firoz Shah Tughlaq); Adhai Din ka Jhonpra (Ajmer); Balban’s tomb = first true arch |
| Khalji | Alai Darwaza (1311) = first true dome; Siri fort |
| Tughlaq | Sloping (battered) walls, austere grey stone; Tughlaqabad; Firoz Shah Kotla |
| Sayyid–Lodi | Octagonal tombs, early double dome; Lodi Garden tombs |
| Regional | Gol Gumbaz (Bijapur, Muhammad Adil Shah; whispering gallery); Charminar (Hyderabad, 1591, Quli Qutb Shah); Atala Masjid (Jaunpur, Sharqi); Jahaz Mahal (Mandu, Malwa) |
| Sur | Sher Shah’s tomb, Sasaram (Bihar), in an artificial lake |
| Mughal | Humayun’s tomb (Delhi; commissioned by his widow Bega Begum; Persian architect Mirak Mirza Ghiyas; first great garden-tomb); Fatehpur Sikri (Akbar; Buland Darwaza, Panch Mahal); Akbar’s tomb, Sikandra; Itimad-ud-Daulah (Nur Jahan; white marble with pietra dura); Taj Mahal (Shah Jahan, c. 1632–1653); Red Fort and Jama Masjid, Delhi (Shah Jahan); Bibi ka Maqbara (Aurangabad) and Badshahi Mosque (Lahore) under Aurangzeb |
Full reign-wise detail: Delhi Sultanate art and Mughal art and architecture.
8. Colonial and Modern Architecture
| Building | Style / architect |
|---|---|
| Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus (Mumbai) | Victorian Gothic, F.W. Stevens; UNESCO 2004 |
| Victoria Memorial (Kolkata) | White marble, Indo-Saracenic/classical blend, William Emerson |
| Gateway of India (Mumbai) | Indo-Saracenic, George Wittet; completed 1924 |
| New Delhi: Rashtrapati Bhavan, North and South Blocks, old Parliament House | Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker |
| Chandigarh, Capitol Complex | Le Corbusier; part of a transnational UNESCO site (2016) |
Indo-Saracenic = Indian and Islamic elements (domes, chhatris, jalis) on Western building types (railway stations, courts, museums).
Analysis for Mains: Why Indian Architecture Matters
- Synthesis: Indo-Islamic buildings joined Indian craftsmanship (brackets, lotus motifs, chhatris) with West Asian arches and domes. Akbar’s Fatehpur Sikri is the textbook example.
- Patronage and polity: temples and mosques announced royal legitimacy (Rajaraja’s Brihadeshwara, Shah Jahan’s Delhi).
- Temples as institutions: land grants, education, music and dance (devadasi traditions), banking roles in the south.
- Regional identity: Odisha deul, Hoysala star plans and Chhattisgarh’s brick tradition at Sirpur show that “Nagara” and “Dravida” are families with many local dialects.
Memory Tricks
Nagara-Dravida-Vesara: N-D-V = North, Down south, in between (Vindhya to Krishna)
Shikhara curves like a shell (north). Vimana steps like a vertical staircase (south). Vesara mixes both, like a very mixed salad (Deccan).
Firsts in Indo-Islamic: Arch before Dome, B before A
Balban’s tomb = first true Arch. Alai Darwaza = first true dome. Balban (r. 1266–1287) comes before Alauddin (r. 1296–1316).
Don’t Confuse
| This | vs | That |
|---|---|---|
| Ajanta — Buddhist only, famed for paintings | vs | Ellora — Buddhist + Hindu + Jain, famed for the Kailasa temple |
| Pancha Rathas — Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla), monolithic | vs | Shore Temple — Narasimhavarman II (Rajasimha), structural |
| Lakshman temple, Sirpur — brick, Vishnu, Chhattisgarh | vs | Lakshmana temple, Khajuraho — stone, Chandela, MP |
| Gol Gumbaz — Bijapur, Adil Shahi | vs | Charminar — Hyderabad, Qutb Shahi |
| Buland Darwaza — Fatehpur Sikri, Akbar | vs | Alai Darwaza — Delhi, Alauddin Khalji |
Common Mistakes
MCQ traps
- “Qutb Minar was completed by Qutbuddin Aibak.” False. Aibak began it; Iltutmish completed the storeys.
- “Gandhara art used red sandstone.” False. That is Mathura; Gandhara used grey schist.
- “The Kailasa temple at Ellora was built by the Chalukyas.” False. It was cut under the Rashtrakuta Krishna I.
- “Konark Sun Temple is a Dravida temple.” False. It is Nagara (Kalinga/Odisha sub-style).
- “Bhoramdeo was built by the Kalachuris.” False. It is a Phani Nagavanshi monument.
Practice
All questions are original practice questions in CGPSC style, not previous-year questions.
Level 1: Foundation
- The bronze “Dancing Girl” of Mohenjo-daro was made by the ______ method.
- The first true dome in India appears in the ______ (built in 1311).
- The Hoysala temples at Belur and Halebidu belong to the ______ style of temple architecture.
Answers
- Lost-wax (cire perdue).
- Alai Darwaza, Delhi.
- Vesara.
Level 2: Prelims MCQs
Q1. Consider the following statements about the Nagara and Dravida styles:
- The Nagara temple usually has a curvilinear shikhara crowned by an amalaka.
- High enclosure walls with gateway towers (gopurams) are characteristic of the Dravida style.
- The Sun Temple at Konark is an example of the Dravida style.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 1 and 2 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer and explanation
(b) 1 and 2 only. The shikhara with an amalaka is the signature of Nagara temples, and gopurams in high enclosure walls mark the Dravida style. Konark (13th century, Eastern Ganga king Narasimhadeva I) is a Nagara temple of the Odisha sub-style, so statement 3 is wrong.
Q2. Match List I (Monument) with List II (Dynasty):
| List I | List II |
|---|---|
| A. Kailasa temple, Ellora | 1. Chola |
| B. Brihadeshwara temple, Thanjavur | 2. Rashtrakuta |
| C. Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram | 3. Chandela |
| D. Kandariya Mahadeva temple, Khajuraho | 4. Pallava |
- (a) A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3
- (b) A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
- (c) A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2
- (d) A-4, B-1, C-2, D-3
Answer and explanation
(b) A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3. The Kailasa temple was cut under Rashtrakuta Krishna I; Brihadeshwara was built by Rajaraja I Chola; the Shore Temple is Pallava (Rajasimha); Kandariya Mahadeva is the finest Chandela temple at Khajuraho.
Q3. Which school of sculpture is correctly matched with the material it mainly used?
- (a) Gandhara — spotted red sandstone
- (b) Mathura — grey-blue schist
- (c) Amaravati — white/greenish limestone
- (d) Mathura — white marble
Answer and explanation
(c). Amaravati sculptors worked in a pale limestone often described as marble. Gandhara used grey-blue schist and stucco, while Mathura used spotted red sandstone, so (a), (b) and (d) swap or invent the materials.
Q4. The Ellora caves are unique among the following because they:
- (a) contain only Buddhist chaityas
- (b) contain Buddhist, Hindu and Jain caves at one site
- (c) were excavated entirely under the Mauryas
- (d) are famous chiefly for their wall paintings
Answer and explanation
(b). Ellora’s 34 caves include 12 Buddhist, 17 Hindu and 5 Jain caves. (d) describes Ajanta, and (a) is also closer to Ajanta. The Ellora caves date from roughly the 6th to the 10th centuries, long after the Mauryas.
Q5. Which of the following is the correct chronological order of construction?
- Alai Darwaza
- Humayun’s tomb
- Balban’s tomb
- Taj Mahal
- (a) 3-1-2-4
- (b) 1-3-2-4
- (c) 3-2-1-4
- (d) 1-3-4-2
Answer and explanation
(a) 3-1-2-4. Balban’s tomb (late 13th century), Alai Darwaza (1311), Humayun’s tomb (second half of the 16th century), Taj Mahal (c. 1632–1653).
Level 3: Mains-Style Answer Writing
CGPSC lists this chapter under Prelims, but the same material serves Mains GS-I (History and culture) and the Essay paper.
Q1. (60 words) Distinguish between the Nagara and Dravida styles of temple architecture with one example each.
Model answer outline
- Nagara: north India; curvilinear shikhara with amalaka; usually no boundary wall; e.g. Kandariya Mahadeva (Khajuraho) or Bhoramdeo (Chhattisgarh).
- Dravida: south India; pyramidal stepped vimana; high enclosure wall with gopurams; temple tank; e.g. Brihadeshwara, Thanjavur.
- One line: Vesara of the Deccan combines both.
Q2. (150–200 words) “Indo-Islamic architecture was a synthesis, not an imposition.” Discuss.
Model answer outline
- Intro: From 1192, Turkish rulers brought the arch, dome, minaret and lime mortar; Indian masons brought centuries of stone-carving skill.
- Body:
- Early phase used temple material and Indian corbelled arches (Quwwat-ul-Islam, Adhai Din ka Jhonpra).
- True arch and dome arrive (Balban’s tomb, Alai Darwaza).
- Regional sultanates blended local idioms (Gol Gumbaz, Jaunpur, Mandu).
- Mughal synthesis: chhatris, brackets and jalis with Persian charbagh and double dome (Humayun’s tomb, Fatehpur Sikri, Taj Mahal).
- Decorative synthesis: pietra dura with Indian floral motifs.
- Indian continuity: the trabeate temple tradition continued alongside (Vijayanagara, Bhoramdeo, Rajput palaces).
- Conclusion: The result was a shared architectural language that later shaped Rajput palaces and even colonial Indo-Saracenic buildings.
Quick Revision Table
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Great Bath | Mohenjo-daro |
| Dancing Girl | Bronze, lost-wax, Mohenjo-daro |
| Ashokan pillars | Monolithic Chunar sandstone, polished |
| National Emblem | Sarnath Lion Capital; adopted 26 Jan 1950 |
| Barabar caves | Bihar; for Ajivikas; Lomas Rishi façade |
| Gandhara / Mathura / Amaravati | Grey schist / red sandstone / white limestone |
| Kailasa temple | Ellora Cave 16; Rashtrakuta Krishna I |
| Pancha Rathas / Shore Temple | Narasimhavarman I / Narasimhavarman II |
| Konark | Narasimhadeva I; 24 wheels, 7 horses |
| Brihadeshwara | Rajaraja I Chola, c. 1010 |
| Hoysala temples | Belur, Halebidu, Somanathapura; Vesara; UNESCO 2023 |
| First true arch / dome | Balban’s tomb / Alai Darwaza (1311) |
| Qutb Minar | Begun by Aibak, completed by Iltutmish |
| Bhoramdeo | Phani Nagavanshi, late 11th century, Kabirdham |
| Lakshman temple, Sirpur | Brick, Vishnu, Queen Vasata, 7th century |
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
- Indian architecture moves from brick cities (Harappa) to polished stone pillars (Ashoka), stupas and caves, then the free-standing temple (Gupta onwards).
- Learn the three temple styles by tower, wall and region, and attach two examples to each.
- The three Kushana-age schools are told apart by material and influence.
- Indo-Islamic architecture brought the true arch and dome; the Mughals perfected the garden tomb.
- Chhattisgarh supplies ready examples: Sirpur (brick), Tala (Rudra Shiva), Rajim and Bhoramdeo.
What’s Next
- Painting — Ajanta murals to miniatures and folk art
- Classical Music and Dance — the temple arts that grew alongside these buildings
- Tourism and Heritage of Chhattisgarh — the state’s monuments in detail
- Mughal Empire — the political setting of Mughal architecture
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