Cholas and the South

Prerequisites

• The Tripartite Struggle — the Rashtrakutas and Palas, whom the Cholas fought
• Local Government: 73rd and 74th Amendments — useful to compare Chola village assemblies with modern panchayats

The Hook: A Chola Army in Bastar

Why it matters: The Cholas are among the most-asked topics in early medieval Prelims: Uttaramerur, Rajaraja–Brihadisvara, Rajendra’s titles, Takkolam, Kulottunga I. Mains asks about Chola local self-government and maritime power.

Before the Cholas: Southern Powers in Brief

The Imperial Cholas (c. 850–1279)

Origin: The Cholas were an ancient Tamil dynasty mentioned in Sangam literature and Ashoka’s edicts. The imperial (later) Chola line began when Vijayalaya captured Thanjavur from the Muttaraiyars around 850.

timeline
    title Imperial Cholas: key rulers
    c. 850 : Vijayalaya captures Thanjavur
    907–955 : Parantaka I takes Madurai; Uttaramerur inscriptions 919 and 921
    949 : Defeat at Takkolam by Rashtrakuta Krishna III
    985–1014 : Rajaraja I; northern Sri Lanka; Brihadisvara c. 1010
    1014–1044 : Rajendra I; all Sri Lanka; Ganga campaign; Srivijaya c. 1025
    1070–c. 1120 : Kulottunga I (Chalukya-Chola); tolls abolished
    1279 : Rajendra III, last ruler; Pandyas take over

Chola Administration

Units of administration

graph TD
    K["King (assisted by ministers and officials)"] --> M["Mandalam (province)"]
    M --> V["Valanadu (division)"]
    V --> N["Nadu (district-level unit; assembly: Nattar)"]
    N --> U["Ur / village (with assemblies: Ur, Sabha, Nagaram)"]

Three kinds of local assembly

The Uttaramerur inscriptions (919 and 921)

Uttaramerur (उत्तरमेरूर), in Kanchipuram district of Tamil Nadu, was a brahmadeya village. Two inscriptions of Parantaka I set out the rules of its sabha. The first (919) laid down the election rules; the second (921) amended them.

Land, revenue and economy

• Land revenue was the main income; Rajaraja I’s land survey made assessment systematic.
• Irrigation: tanks, wells and channels from the Kaveri; the eri variyam maintained tanks.
• Trade: merchant guilds such as the Manigramam and the Ainnurruvar (the “Five Hundred” of Ayyavole) traded across South India and overseas. Nagapattinam was a major port. The Srivijaya king built a Buddhist vihara at Nagapattinam with a grant from Rajaraja I, recorded in the Larger Leiden plates.

Historians’ debate: K.A. Nilakanta Sastri saw the Chola state as centralised. Burton Stein called it a “segmentary state”, in which the king’s ritual authority reached far but real control lay with local nadus and assemblies. Quoting both lifts a Mains answer.

Chola Art and Literature

• Dravida temple architecture reached its peak. The Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur has a towering vimana (about 66 m) and was built of granite. With Gangaikondacholisvaram (Gangaikonda Cholapuram) and the Airavatesvara temple at Darasuram (Rajaraja II), it forms the UNESCO World Heritage Site Great Living Chola Temples (Thanjavur inscribed 1987; extended 2004).
• Bronze sculpture: made by the lost-wax (cire perdue) technique. The Nataraja (Shiva as Lord of Dance) is the most famous form. Queen Sembiyan Mahadevi was a noted patron of temples and bronzes.
• Temples as institutions: landowners, employers, banks, schools and centres of dance and music.
• Literature: Tamil devotional and epic works flourished, including Kamban’s Ramavataram (Tamil Ramayana), Sekkilar’s Periya Puranam (lives of the Nayanars) and Jayamkondar’s Kalingattupparani. See Bhakti and Sufi Movements for the Nayanars and Alvars.

Other Southern and Deccan Powers (11th–13th century)

Memory Tricks

Don’t Confuse

Common Mistakes

Practice

All questions below are original practice questions written in CGPSC style. They are not previous-year questions.

Level 1: Foundation

1. The founder of the imperial Chola line, who captured Thanjavur, was ______.
2. The Chola king who abolished tolls and was called Sungam Tavirtta Cholan was ______.
3. The Uttaramerur village sabha selected members by a lot system called ______.

Level 2: Prelims MCQs

Q1. Consider the following statements about the Uttaramerur inscriptions:

1. They belong to the reign of Parantaka I.
2. They describe the functioning of a sabha in a brahmadeya village.
3. Under the system they describe, every adult resident of the village had the right to vote.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

• (a) 1 only
• (b) 1 and 2 only
• (c) 2 and 3 only
• (d) 1, 2 and 3

Q2. Match List I (Chola ruler) with List II (Association):

• (a) A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2
• (b) A-1, B-3, C-4, D-2
• (c) A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2
• (d) A-3, B-1, C-2, D-4

Q3. Arrange the following events in chronological order:

1. Battle of Takkolam
2. Completion of the Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur
3. Uttaramerur inscription laying down election rules
4. Battle of Koppam

• (a) 3, 1, 2, 4
• (b) 1, 3, 2, 4
• (c) 3, 2, 1, 4
• (d) 3, 1, 4, 2

Q4. Rajendra Chola I’s Tirumalai inscription lists “Śakkarakkōṭṭam” among his conquests. Historians identify this with:

• (a) Chakrakota, the kingdom of the Chhindaka Nagas in Bastar
• (b) Kadaram in the Malay Peninsula
• (c) Kalyani, the Chalukya capital
• (d) Tripuri, the Kalachuri capital

Q5. Which of the following is/are part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site “Great Living Chola Temples”?

1. Brihadisvara temple, Thanjavur
2. Shore Temple, Mamallapuram
3. Airavatesvara temple, Darasuram

• (a) 1 only
• (b) 1 and 3 only
• (c) 2 and 3 only
• (d) 1, 2 and 3

Level 3: Mains Answer Writing

Q1. (60 words) What was the kudavolai system?

Q2. (150–200 words) “The Cholas combined strong local self-government with imperial ambition.” Discuss.

Quick Revision Table

Key Takeaways

What’s Next

• Arab and Turkish Invasions — meanwhile, in the north-west
• The Delhi Sultanate — Khalji and Tughlaq campaigns against Devagiri, Warangal and Madurai
• Indian Art, Literature and Culture — Dravida temple style and Chola bronzes
• Bhakti and Sufi Movements — the Alvars and Nayanars behind Chola-era devotion