History
Early Medieval India
The Tripartite Struggle: Pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakutas
CGPSC notes on the tripartite struggle for Kannauj (c. 750–1000): Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakutas, their key rulers, monuments and legacy.
Prerequisites
- Post-Mauryan Period, Guptas and Vakatakas — how the Gupta empire broke up into regional kingdoms
- Early Medieval India: chapter overview — the map of the period and where this topic fits
The Hook: Why Fight Over One City?
Connect
In Chhattisgarh politics, holding Raipur means holding the state. In 8th-century north India, the city that meant the same thing was Kannauj (कन्नौज) on the Ganga. It had been Harshavardhana’s capital in the 7th century, and whoever held it could claim to be the paramount ruler of north India.
For about two hundred years, three dynasties from three different regions, the Gurjara-Pratiharas of western India, the Palas of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan, fought over it. Historians call this the tripartite struggle (त्रिपक्षीय संघर्ष). Who won, and what did the contest cost India?
Why it matters: Prelims loves “match the dynasty with the ruler or monument” (Dharmapala–Vikramashila, Krishna I–Kailasa). Mains asks how this long war weakened north India before the Turkish invasions.
The Three Contenders at a Glance
| Point | Gurjara-Pratiharas (गुर्जर-प्रतिहार) | Palas (पाल) | Rashtrakutas (राष्ट्रकूट) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Base region | Western India: Rajasthan, Gujarat, Malwa | Bengal and Bihar | Deccan (Maharashtra–Karnataka) |
| Capital | Ujjain / Bhinmal region at first; Kannauj from the early 9th century | Pataliputra and Monghyr, among others | Manyakheta (Malkhed) from Amoghavarsha I |
| Founder / early ruler | Nagabhata I (8th century) | Gopala (c. 750) | Dantidurga (mid-8th century) |
| Greatest ruler(s) | Mihira Bhoja (c. 836–885), Mahendrapala I | Dharmapala, Devapala | Dhruva, Govinda III, Amoghavarsha I, Krishna III |
| Religion patronised | Mainly Vaishnava and Shaiva | Buddhism (Mahayana–Vajrayana) | Shaiva, Vaishnava and Jain |
| Famous legacy | Checked Arab expansion from Sindh | Vikramashila, Somapura Mahavihara, Pala bronzes and manuscript painting | Kailasa temple, Ellora; Kannada literature |
Gurjara-Pratiharas
- Nagabhata I (8th century) is remembered for checking the Arabs of Sindh, who raided Rajasthan, Gujarat and Malwa in the 730s. Arab expansion east of the Indus stalled after this. Other kings, such as the Chalukya feudatory Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin in Gujarat, also resisted the same raids.
- Vatsaraja entered the struggle for Kannauj but was defeated by the Rashtrakuta Dhruva.
- Nagabhata II captured Kannauj in the early 9th century and made it the Pratihara capital, though he too was defeated by the Rashtrakuta Govinda III.
- Mihira Bhoja (c. 836–885) was the greatest Pratihara king. A devotee of Vishnu, he took the title Adivaraha, which appears on his coins. His empire stretched over much of north India.
- Mahendrapala I was the patron of the poet-critic Rajashekhara, author of Karpuramanjari and Kavyamimamsa.
- Decline: The Rashtrakuta Indra III sacked Kannauj in the early 10th century. Feudatories such as the Chandelas, Paramaras and Chauhans gradually broke away. When Mahmud of Ghazni reached Kannauj in 1018, the Pratihara king Rajyapala fled.
An Arab witness
The Arab merchant Sulaiman, writing in 851, described the king of “Juzr” (understood as the Pratiharas) as having the finest cavalry in India and as hostile to the Arabs. He described the “Balhara” (the Rashtrakuta king) as one of the four great kings of the world and friendly to the Arabs. That contrast is a good Mains point: the Rashtrakutas traded with the Arabs, while the Pratiharas fought them.
Palas of Bengal
- Gopala (c. 750) was raised to the throne by the leading men of Bengal to end a period of anarchy, which the Pala records call matsyanyaya (मत्स्यन्याय), “the logic of the fish”, where the big fish eat the small. The Khalimpur copper plate of his son Dharmapala records this.
- Dharmapala (c. 770–810) briefly placed his nominee Chakrayudha on the throne of Kannauj. He founded the Vikramashila (विक्रमशिला) mahavihara in Bihar and the Somapura Mahavihara at Paharpur (now in Bangladesh; a UNESCO World Heritage Site).
- Devapala (9th century) is known for a copper plate granting villages to support a monastery at Nalanda built by Balaputradeva, the Shailendra king of Suvarnadvipa (Sumatra–Java). This shows the Palas’ links with South-East Asia.
- Mahipala I (c. 988–1038) revived Pala power, but was defeated by Rajendra Chola during the Chola campaign to the Ganga (see Cholas and the South).
- Ramapala (late 11th century) suppressed the Kaivarta revolt in Varendra. His reign is the subject of Sandhyakara Nandi’s Ramacharita.
- The Palas were followed in Bengal by the Senas (12th century).
Pala legacy: Nalanda and Vikramashila drew students from Tibet and South-East Asia. The scholar Atisha Dipankara of Vikramashila went to Tibet in the 11th century. The Pala school of bronze sculpture and palm-leaf manuscript painting influenced art in Nepal, Tibet and South-East Asia.
Rashtrakutas of the Deccan
- Dantidurga (mid-8th century) founded the dynasty by overthrowing his overlords, the Chalukyas of Badami.
- Krishna I built the monolithic Kailasa (Kailasanatha) temple at Ellora (Cave 16), carved top-down out of a single basalt hill.
- Dhruva and Govinda III led raids into the Ganga valley and defeated both the Pratiharas and the Palas, the high point of the Rashtrakutas in the north.
- Amoghavarsha I (c. 814–878) built Manyakheta as his capital and patronised Jain scholars such as Jinasena. The Kannada work on poetics Kavirajamarga is attributed to his reign (to the king himself or to a court poet, Srivijaya).
- Indra III sacked Kannauj in the early 10th century.
- Krishna III defeated the Cholas at the Battle of Takkolam (949), where the Chola prince Rajaditya was killed.
- Decline: The Paramara king Siyaka sacked Manyakheta in 972. Soon after, Tailapa II overthrew the last Rashtrakuta (973) and founded the Chalukyas of Kalyani (Later Western Chalukyas).
Who Won? Results of the Struggle
Short answer: no one, permanently. The Pratiharas held Kannauj longest. The Rashtrakutas won most of the battles but never tried to rule the Ganga valley. The Palas lost Kannauj early but kept Bengal.
| Effect | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Mutual exhaustion | Two centuries of war drained all three. Each declined in the 10th century |
| Rise of feudatories | Pratihara feudatories (Chandelas, Paramaras, Chauhans, Chaulukyas) became independent Rajput kingdoms |
| North-west left weak | With the Pratiharas gone, no strong power guarded the Punjab when the Ghaznavids came (see Arab and Turkish Invasions) |
| Regional cultures flourished | Pala Buddhist learning, Rashtrakuta Kannada literature and Ellora, Pratihara temple building: regional courts became cultural centres |
| Kannauj’s symbolism | Shows that the idea of a north Indian “paramount” capital, inherited from Harsha, still mattered |
Chhattisgarh angle
While these three fought over Kannauj, central India produced the Kalachuris of Tripuri (near Jabalpur), another power that grew out of this contest. A junior branch of the Tripuri Kalachuris founded the Kalachuri kingdom of Ratanpur in Chhattisgarh around 1000 CE. See Rajput Kingdoms and Kalachuris of Ratanpur and Raipur.
Memory Tricks
'PPR' around Kannauj
Pratihara = Paschim (west), Pala = Purab (east), Rashtrakuta = Rock-cut south (Ellora).
Founders in order of the map, west to east to south: Nagabhata I, Gopala, Dantidurga → “North Gets Divided”.
One ruler, one monument
- Dharmapala → Vikramashila: “Dharma needs a Vihara”.
- Krishna I → Kailasa: “Krishna carved Kailasa”.
- Amoghavarsha → Kavirajamarga and Manyakheta: “Amogh’s court gave Kannada its rule-book of poetry”.
Don’t Confuse
| This | vs | That |
|---|---|---|
| Mihira Bhoja — Pratihara, 9th century, “Adivaraha” | vs | Raja Bhoja — Paramara of Malwa (Dhar), 11th century, scholar-king |
| Kailasa temple, Ellora — Rashtrakuta, rock-cut, Krishna I | vs | Kailasanatha temple, Kanchipuram — Pallava, structural, Rajasimha |
| Vikramashila — founded by Dharmapala | vs | Nalanda — Gupta-era foundation; Devapala granted villages to it |
| Chalukyas of Badami — overthrown by Dantidurga | vs | Chalukyas of Kalyani — founded by Tailapa II, who overthrew the Rashtrakutas |
| Takkolam (949) — Rashtrakuta Krishna III defeated the Cholas | vs | Koppam (1054) — Chola–Chalukya battle in which Rajadhiraja I died |
Common Mistakes
MCQ traps
- “The Palas were Brahmanical Hindus.” They were the great patrons of Buddhism in this period.
- “The Rashtrakutas ruled Kannauj for long.” They raided and won battles in the north but ruled from the Deccan.
- “Gopala conquered Bengal.” Pala records say he was chosen to end anarchy (matsyanyaya).
- “The Kailasa temple is a structural temple.” It is monolithic rock-cut, carved from the top down.
- “Mihira Bhoja and Raja Bhoja are the same king.” Different dynasties and centuries.
Practice
All questions below are original practice questions written in CGPSC style. They are not previous-year questions.
Level 1: Foundation
- The three parties to the tripartite struggle fought for control of the city of ______.
- The Pala king who founded the Vikramashila mahavihara was ______.
- The Rashtrakuta capital Manyakheta is identified with modern ______.
Answers
- Kannauj.
- Dharmapala.
- Malkhed (Karnataka).
Level 2: Prelims MCQs
Q1. Consider the following statements:
- Gopala, the founder of the Pala dynasty, is said in Pala records to have been chosen to end a period of anarchy.
- The Kailasa temple at Ellora was built by the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha I.
- The Rashtrakuta king Krishna III defeated the Cholas at Takkolam.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 1 and 3 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer and explanation
(b) 1 and 3 only. Statement 1 is correct: the Khalimpur plate describes Gopala being raised to the throne to end matsyanyaya. Statement 2 is wrong: the Kailasa temple is credited to Krishna I. Amoghavarsha I is linked with Manyakheta and the Kavirajamarga. Statement 3 is correct: Krishna III won at Takkolam in 949.
Q2. Match List I (Ruler) with List II (Association):
| List I | List II |
|---|---|
| A. Mihira Bhoja | 1. Vikramashila |
| B. Dharmapala | 2. Title “Adivaraha” |
| C. Krishna I | 3. Kavirajamarga |
| D. Amoghavarsha I | 4. Kailasa temple, Ellora |
- (a) A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
- (b) A-1, B-2, C-4, D-3
- (c) A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
- (d) A-4, B-1, C-2, D-3
Answer and explanation
(a) A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3. Mihira Bhoja (Pratihara) used the title Adivaraha. Dharmapala (Pala) founded Vikramashila. Krishna I (Rashtrakuta) built the Kailasa temple. The Kannada work Kavirajamarga belongs to Amoghavarsha I’s reign.
Q3. The Shailendra king Balaputradeva, who built a monastery at Nalanda, received a grant of villages for it from which Pala ruler?
- (a) Gopala
- (b) Dharmapala
- (c) Devapala
- (d) Mahipala I
Answer and explanation
(c) Devapala. Devapala’s copper plate records the grant to support the monastery built at Nalanda by Balaputradeva of Suvarnadvipa. It is evidence of Pala contacts with South-East Asia.
Q4. Which one of the following events ended the Rashtrakuta dynasty?
- (a) The Battle of Takkolam
- (b) The overthrow of the last Rashtrakuta king by Tailapa II
- (c) Mahmud of Ghazni’s raid on Kannauj
- (d) The defeat of Govinda III by Nagabhata II
Answer and explanation
(b). After the Paramaras sacked Manyakheta in 972, Tailapa II overthrew the last Rashtrakuta king (973) and founded the Chalukyas of Kalyani. Takkolam (949) was a Rashtrakuta victory. Option (d) reverses the fact: Govinda III defeated Nagabhata II.
Level 3: Mains Answer Writing
Q1. (60 words) What was the tripartite struggle?
Model answer outline
- Define: a contest of about two centuries (c. 750–1000) for control of Kannauj among the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakutas.
- Key moments: Dharmapala’s nominee Chakrayudha; Nagabhata II takes Kannauj; Dhruva and Govinda III raid north; Indra III sacks Kannauj.
- Result: Pratiharas held Kannauj longest; all three exhausted, opening space for Rajput states and later the Turks.
Q2. (150–200 words) “The tripartite struggle had no winner but many consequences.” Discuss.
Model answer outline
- Intro: Kannauj, Harsha’s capital, symbolised paramountcy in north India; three regional powers fought for it from about 750 to 1000.
- Body:
- No lasting winner: the Rashtrakutas won battles but stayed in the Deccan; the Pratiharas held Kannauj but were repeatedly defeated; the Palas lost Kannauj early.
- Political consequences: exhaustion of all three; feudatories became independent (Chandelas, Paramaras, Chauhans, Chaulukyas); the north-west frontier was weakened before the Ghaznavid raids.
- Cultural consequences: Pala Buddhist centres (Vikramashila, Somapura) and their influence in Tibet and South-East Asia; Rashtrakuta Ellora and Kannada literature; Pratihara patronage of Sanskrit (Rajashekhara).
- Regionalism: the period confirmed a pattern of strong regional kingdoms rather than one empire.
- Chhattisgarh angle: central India saw the rise of the Kalachuris of Tripuri, whose offshoot founded the Ratanpur kingdom in Chhattisgarh around 1000 CE.
- Conclusion: the struggle was politically inconclusive, but it shaped the regional map that the Turks met in the 11th–12th centuries.
Quick Revision Table
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Prize | Kannauj (Harsha’s former capital) |
| Period | c. 750–1000 |
| Pratihara founder | Nagabhata I; checked the Arabs of Sindh |
| Pratihara capital Kannauj | From Nagabhata II (early 9th century) |
| Greatest Pratihara | Mihira Bhoja (c. 836–885), “Adivaraha” |
| Rajashekhara | Court poet of Mahendrapala I |
| Pala founder | Gopala (c. 750), chosen to end matsyanyaya |
| Vikramashila, Somapura | Dharmapala |
| Nalanda grant to Balaputradeva | Devapala |
| Mahipala I | Defeated by Rajendra Chola |
| Rashtrakuta founder | Dantidurga (overthrew Badami Chalukyas) |
| Kailasa temple, Ellora | Krishna I |
| Manyakheta, Kavirajamarga | Amoghavarsha I |
| Takkolam | 949, Krishna III defeated the Cholas |
| End of Rashtrakutas | Tailapa II (973) → Chalukyas of Kalyani |
| Sulaiman’s account | 851; “Balhara” = Rashtrakuta king |
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
- The tripartite struggle was a contest among a western, an eastern and a southern power for Kannauj.
- Learn one ruler and one monument or institution for each dynasty: Mihira Bhoja, Dharmapala–Vikramashila, Krishna I–Kailasa.
- The Palas were the great Buddhist patrons; the Rashtrakutas supported Jainism and Kannada literature.
- The Rashtrakutas were ended by Tailapa II, founder of the Chalukyas of Kalyani.
- The struggle exhausted all three and paved the way for the Rajput kingdoms and, eventually, Turkish success.
What’s Next
- Rajput Kingdoms — the feudatories who became kingdoms
- Cholas and the South — the southern power that defeated Mahipala I
- Indian Art, Literature and Culture — Ellora, Pala bronzes and temple styles in depth
- Kalachuris of Ratanpur and Raipur — the Chhattisgarh branch of a central Indian power
Advertisement