History
Jainism, Buddhism and Religious Movements
Buddhist Councils, Literature and Sects
The four Buddhist councils, the Tripitaka, Hinayana, Mahayana and Vajrayana, spread and decline of Buddhism, and Buddhist Sirpur and Bhongapal for CGPSC.
Prerequisites
- Buddha and Buddhist Philosophy — the teachings the councils tried to preserve
- Mahajanapadas, Magadha and the Mauryan Empire — Ajatashatru, Kalashoka and Ashoka, patrons of the first three councils
- Post-Mauryan Period, Guptas and Vakatakas — Kanishka and the Kushans
The Hook: What Xuanzang Saw in Kosala
Connect
In the 7th century CE the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang, ह्वेनसांग) described a kingdom he called Kosala, generally identified with Dakshin Kosala — the Chhattisgarh plains. He counted about 100 monasteries and some 10,000 monks, and he noted that they all followed the Mahayana. He also recorded that the great Mahayana philosopher Nagarjuna had once lived in a monastery in this land.
Mahayana? The Buddha never used the word. How did one teacher’s message split into “Great” and “Lesser” vehicles — and who held the councils that tried to keep it together?
Why it matters: The four councils table (place, date, king, president, outcome) is one of the most-asked Prelims items in ancient Indian history. Hinayana vs Mahayana and the decline of Buddhism are standard Mains questions.
The Four Buddhist Councils (बौद्ध संगीति)
| Council | Place | Date | Patron king | President | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| First | Rajagriha (Saptaparni cave) | c. 483 BCE, soon after the Buddha’s death | Ajatashatru (Haryanka) | Mahakassapa | Teachings recited: Sutta Pitaka by Ananda, Vinaya Pitaka by Upali |
| Second | Vaishali | c. 383 BCE, about a century later | Kalashoka (Shishunaga) | Sabakami (some accounts name Revata) | Dispute over ten relaxed rules of the Vaishali monks → first schism: Sthaviravadins (elders) vs Mahasanghikas |
| Third | Pataliputra | c. 250 BCE | Ashoka (Maurya) | Moggaliputta Tissa | Dissenters expelled; Abhidhamma Pitaka completed (Tissa’s Kathavatthu); missionaries sent abroad |
| Fourth | Kundalvana, Kashmir | c. 1st–2nd century CE | Kanishka (Kushan) | Vasumitra, with Ashvaghosha as deputy | Sarvastivada doctrine compiled in Sanskrit (Mahavibhasha); associated with the rise of Mahayana and the Hinayana–Mahayana divide |
flowchart LR
A["1st: Rajagriha
c. 483 BCE
Ajatashatru, Mahakassapa
Sutta + Vinaya"] --> B["2nd: Vaishali
c. 383 BCE
Kalashoka, Sabakami
first schism"]
B --> C["3rd: Pataliputra
c. 250 BCE
Ashoka, Moggaliputta Tissa
Abhidhamma, missions"]
C --> D["4th: Kashmir
1st–2nd c. CE
Kanishka, Vasumitra
Mahayana rises"]
Two 'fourth councils' and later councils
The table above follows the North Indian (Sarvastivada) tradition that Indian exams use. The Theravada tradition of Sri Lanka counts a different fourth council: in about the 1st century BCE, the Pali canon was first written down at Aluvihare (Aloka Vihara) in Sri Lanka. Theravadins have since held councils in Myanmar — at Mandalay (1871), under King Mindon, and at Yangon (1954–56). If an MCQ says “Kanishka” or “Kashmir”, the answer is the Kundalvana council.
Buddhist Literature (बौद्ध साहित्य)
The Tripitaka (त्रिपिटक) — “three baskets”, in Pali
| Pitaka | Content |
|---|---|
| Sutta Pitaka | The Buddha’s discourses, in five Nikayas (Digha, Majjhima, Samyutta, Anguttara, Khuddaka). The Khuddaka Nikaya includes the Dhammapada and the Jatakas (stories of the Buddha’s previous births) |
| Vinaya Pitaka | Rules of discipline for monks and nuns |
| Abhidhamma Pitaka | Philosophical and psychological analysis of the teaching |
Other important texts
| Text | Author / note |
|---|---|
| Milindapanha | Dialogue between the Indo-Greek king Menander (Milinda) and the monk Nagasena |
| Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa | Pali chronicles of Sri Lanka — key sources for Ashoka and the missions |
| Buddhacharita | Sanskrit biography of the Buddha by Ashvaghosha, Kanishka’s contemporary |
| Visuddhimagga | Theravada manual by Buddhaghosa (5th century CE) |
| Mulamadhyamakakarika | Nagarjuna’s foundational Madhyamika text |
| Divyavadana (incl. Ashokavadana) | Sanskrit legends, including stories of Ashoka |
Sects of Buddhism (बौद्ध सम्प्रदाय)
graph TD
A["Buddha's teaching"] --> B["2nd Council, Vaishali:
first schism"]
B --> C["Sthaviravada (elders)"]
B --> D["Mahasanghika"]
C --> E["Theravada / Hinayana
Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand"]
D --> F["Mahayana
c. 1st century CE onwards"]
F --> G["Madhyamika - Nagarjuna"]
F --> H["Yogachara - Asanga, Vasubandhu"]
F --> I["Vajrayana
c. 7th–8th century, eastern India to Tibet"]The chart is simplified. After the first schism, some 18 early schools arose, including the influential Sarvastivada. Mahayana drew on more than one of them.
Hinayana vs Mahayana
| Point | Hinayana / Theravada (“Lesser Vehicle” / “Doctrine of the Elders”) | Mahayana (“Great Vehicle”) |
|---|---|---|
| View of the Buddha | A great human teacher | A divine, saviour figure; many Buddhas and Bodhisattvas |
| Ideal | Arhat — individual liberation by one’s own effort | Bodhisattva — postpones own nirvana to help all beings (karuna, compassion) |
| Worship | Originally no images; symbols | Image worship, devotion (bhakti) |
| Language | Pali | Sanskrit |
| Philosophical schools | Vaibhashika, Sautrantika | Madhyamika (Shunyavada), Yogachara (Vijnanavada) |
| Where today | Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos | China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam; Tibet and the Himalaya via Vajrayana |
“Hinayana” is a label coined by Mahayana writers, and Theravadins find it pejorative. In Mains, write “Theravada (often called Hinayana)”.
Mahayana philosophical schools
- Madhyamika / Shunyavada (शून्यवाद) — founded by Nagarjuna (c. 2nd–3rd century CE). All things are “empty” (shunya) of independent existence, because they arise dependently. He is often called the greatest Buddhist philosopher after the Buddha.
- Yogachara / Vijnanavada (विज्ञानवाद) — Asanga and his brother Vasubandhu (c. 4th–5th century CE). Only consciousness (vijnana) is real; the external world is a construction of the mind.
- Well-known Bodhisattvas: Avalokiteshvara (Padmapani, compassion), Manjushri (wisdom), Vajrapani, and Maitreya (the future Buddha).
Vajrayana (वज्रयान) — the “Thunderbolt Vehicle”
- Developed from about the 7th–8th century CE in eastern India (Bengal, Bihar, Odisha) under Pala patronage.
- Uses mantras, mudras, mandalas and esoteric (tantric) rituals, and gives importance to female deities such as Tara.
- Taken to Tibet by Padmasambhava (8th century) and later by Atisha Dipankara of Vikramashila (11th century).
Later developments
- Zen (Japan), from Chinese Chan, which tradition traces to the Indian monk Bodhidharma.
- Navayana (नवयान) — Dr B.R. Ambedkar embraced Buddhism with several hundred thousand followers at Deekshabhoomi, Nagpur, on 14 October 1956. He reinterpreted it as a religion of social equality (The Buddha and His Dhamma).
Spread of Buddhism
| Agent | Contribution |
|---|---|
| Ashoka (3rd century BCE) | Third Council; missions abroad, including his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka (with a sapling of the Bodhi tree); stupas such as Sanchi |
| Kanishka (Kushan) | Fourth Council; Mahayana; spread to Central Asia and China; Gandhara and Mathura schools of Buddha images |
| Satavahanas and Ikshvakus | Deccan stupas and caves — Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, Karle |
| Harsha (7th century) | Patron of Mahayana; Xuanzang at his court and at Nalanda |
| Palas of Bengal (8th–12th century) | Last great royal patrons; Vikramashila (founded by Dharmapala), Nalanda revived; Vajrayana |
Centres of learning: Nalanda (founded under the Gupta king Kumaragupta I, 5th century CE; a UNESCO World Heritage Site), Vikramashila, Odantapuri (Bihar) and Valabhi (Gujarat).
Chinese pilgrims: Faxian (Fa-Hien) in the reign of Chandragupta II, early 5th century; Xuanzang in Harsha’s reign, 7th century — he studied at Nalanda and wrote the Si-yu-ki; Yijing (I-tsing), late 7th century.
Architecture in one line:
- stupa — relic mound: Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati
- chaitya — prayer hall: Karle, Bhaja, Ajanta
- vihara — monastery: Nalanda, Sirpur
See Indian Art, Literature and Culture.
Decline of Buddhism in India
| Factor | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Brahmanical revival | Gupta-era Vaishnavism and Shaivism, the Bhakti movement and Shankaracharya’s Advaita answered the same spiritual needs; the Buddha was absorbed as an avatar of Vishnu |
| Changes within Buddhism | Sanskrit replaced Pali and distanced the masses; Mahayana image worship blurred the difference from Hinduism; later Vajrayana rituals drew criticism |
| Wealthy, inward-looking monasteries | Large endowments and dependence on royal grants; weak links with a lay community (unlike the Jains) |
| Loss of royal patronage | After Harsha only the Palas were major patrons; hostile rulers are reported in some sources (Pushyamitra Shunga in Buddhist legend, Mihirakula, Shashanka). These reports come from partisan texts and are debated |
| Turkish invasions | Monasteries were easy targets; Nalanda and Vikramashila were sacked around c. 1200, and monks fled to Tibet and Nepal |
Legacy: ahimsa and compassion; monastic education; art (stupas, Ajanta); Pali and Sanskrit literature; India’s link with Asia. Its symbols are national symbols — the Ashokan Lion Capital from Sarnath is the State Emblem, and the Dharmachakra is on the national flag.
Chhattisgarh Angle: Buddhist Dakshin Kosala
| Site / source | What to know |
|---|---|
| Xuanzang’s Kosala | About 100 monasteries and some 10,000 Mahayana monks. He reports that a Satavahana king had a monastery cut in a hill for Nagarjuna in this kingdom. Exam material places his visit c. 639 CE, in the Panduvanshi period. The identification of Kosala with Dakshin Kosala is generally accepted; the exact monastery site is not identified |
| Sirpur (Shripura), Mahasamund | Panduvanshi capital; Buddhist viharas such as the Anand Prabhu Kuti Vihar (built by the monk Anandaprabha in Mahashivagupta Balarjuna’s reign) and the Swastik Vihar; Buddhist bronzes. A Shaiva king patronised Buddhists — see The Pandu (Somvanshi) Dynasty of Sirpur |
| Bhongapal, Kondagaon district (Bastar region) | Excavated in 1990–91: a brick Buddhist chaitya-griha with a large seated Buddha, dated on stylistic grounds to the 5th–6th century CE. It is described as the only brick chaitya-griha known in the state — evidence that Buddhism reached the forested south |
| Pragyagiri, Dongargarh | A modern Buddhist hill shrine with a large Buddha statue — not an ancient site |
Memory Tricks
Councils: R-V-P-K and A-K-A-K
Places: Rajagriha, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Kashmir — “Real Victory Promises Knowledge”.
Kings: Ajatashatru, Kalashoka, Ashoka, Kanishka — “A-K-A-K”, alternating A and K.
Presidents: Mahakassapa, Sabakami, Moggaliputta Tissa, Vasumitra — “My Sister Meets Vasumitra”.
Three baskets: S-V-A
Sutta (sermons) — Vinaya (rules) — Abhidhamma (analysis). Ananda recited the Sutta, Upali the Vinaya, at the First Council: “Ananda Sermons, Upali Vinaya”.
N-S / A-V
Nagarjuna → Shunyavada (Madhyamika). Asanga & Vasubandhu → Vijnanavada (Yogachara).
Don’t Confuse
| This | vs | That |
|---|---|---|
| Third Buddhist council — Pataliputra, Ashoka, Moggaliputta Tissa | vs | First Jain council — Pataliputra, Sthulabhadra |
| Fourth council (Kundalvana) — Kanishka, Vasumitra, Sanskrit | vs | Theravada “fourth council” — Sri Lanka, Pali canon written, 1st century BCE |
| Nagarjuna — Madhyamika philosopher | vs | Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Buddhist site) and Nagarjuni hill (Bihar Ajivika caves) |
| Ashvaghosha — Buddhacharita, deputy at the 4th council | vs | Buddhaghosa — Visuddhimagga, Theravada commentator |
| Arhat (Theravada ideal) | vs | Bodhisattva (Mahayana ideal) |
| Faxian — Chandragupta II | vs | Xuanzang — Harsha (and Kosala) |
| Anand Prabhu Kuti Vihar — Sirpur | vs | Bhongapal chaitya — Bastar region, brick, 5th–6th century |
Common Mistakes
MCQ traps
- “The Mahayana–Hinayana split happened at the Second Council.” The Second Council (Vaishali) produced the Sthaviravada–Mahasanghika split. Mahayana is associated with the Fourth Council period.
- “The Fourth Council was held at Jalandhar.” The standard answer is Kundalvana in Kashmir. Some sources mention Jalandhar as a variant tradition; choose Kashmir if both appear.
- “Ashoka presided over the Third Council.” He was the patron; Moggaliputta Tissa presided.
- “The Tripitaka was compiled in Sanskrit.” The Theravada Tripitaka is in Pali. The Fourth Council’s commentaries were in Sanskrit.
- “The Buddhist sites of Sirpur were built by a Buddhist king.” Balarjuna was a Shaiva who patronised Buddhists.
Practice
All questions below are original practice questions written in CGPSC style. They are not previous-year questions.
Level 1: Foundation
- The First Buddhist Council was held at ______ under the patronage of ______.
- The Madhyamika (Shunyavada) school was founded by ______.
- The Vinaya Pitaka deals with ______.
Answers
- Rajagriha; Ajatashatru (president Mahakassapa).
- Nagarjuna.
- Rules of discipline for monks and nuns.
Level 2: Prelims MCQs
Q1. Match List I (Buddhist Council) with List II (Patron):
| List I | List II |
|---|---|
| A. First | 1. Kanishka |
| B. Second | 2. Ashoka |
| C. Third | 3. Ajatashatru |
| D. Fourth | 4. Kalashoka |
- (a) A-3, B-2, C-4, D-1
- (b) A-4, B-3, C-2, D-1
- (c) A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1
- (d) A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2
Answer and explanation
(c) A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1. Rajagriha (Ajatashatru), Vaishali (Kalashoka), Pataliputra (Ashoka), Kashmir (Kanishka) — the “A-K-A-K” pattern.
Q2. Consider the following statements about Mahayana Buddhism:
- It regards the Bodhisattva, who postpones his own nirvana to help others, as the ideal.
- Its texts were mainly composed in Pali.
- The Yogachara school, associated with Asanga and Vasubandhu, belongs to it.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 2 and 3 only
- (c) 1 and 2 only
- (d) 1 and 3 only
Answer and explanation
(d) 1 and 3 only. Mahayana texts were mainly in Sanskrit; Pali is the language of the Theravada canon. The Bodhisattva ideal and the Yogachara (Vijnanavada) and Madhyamika schools are Mahayana.
Q3. Which council resulted in the first split of the Sangha into Sthaviravadins and Mahasanghikas?
- (a) Rajagriha
- (b) Vaishali
- (c) Pataliputra
- (d) Kundalvana
Answer and explanation
(b) Vaishali (c. 383 BCE, under Kalashoka). Monks who accepted ten relaxed rules of discipline broke away as the Mahasanghikas, and the orthodox elders became the Sthaviravadins.
Q4. The Chinese pilgrim who described about 100 Mahayana monasteries in the kingdom of Kosala, generally identified with Dakshin Kosala, was:
- (a) Faxian
- (b) Xuanzang
- (c) Yijing
- (d) Song Yun
Answer and explanation
(b) Xuanzang (7th century). Faxian came earlier, in Chandragupta II’s reign, and Yijing later in the 7th century. Xuanzang’s account of Kosala is linked to the Panduvanshi period at Sirpur.
Q5. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched?
- (a) Milindapanha — dialogue between Menander and Nagasena
- (b) Buddhacharita — Ashvaghosha
- (c) Visuddhimagga — Nagarjuna
- (d) Mahavamsa — chronicle of Sri Lanka
Answer and explanation
(c). The Visuddhimagga is by Buddhaghosa, the 5th-century Theravada commentator. Nagarjuna’s best-known work is the Mulamadhyamakakarika.
Level 3: Mains Answer Writing
Q1. (150–200 words) Distinguish between Theravada (Hinayana) and Mahayana Buddhism. How did the Fourth Buddhist Council contribute to the divide?
Model answer outline
- Intro: Disagreements over discipline began at Vaishali (Sthaviravada vs Mahasanghika); by the Kushan period two broad paths had emerged.
- Differences: the Buddha as human teacher vs divine saviour; arhat vs bodhisattva; self-effort vs compassion and grace; symbols vs images; Pali vs Sanskrit; South-East Asia vs East Asia.
- Fourth Council: Kanishka’s council in Kashmir (Vasumitra, Ashvaghosha) compiled Sarvastivada doctrine in Sanskrit (Mahavibhasha). Royal patronage, the Gandhara and Mathura Buddha images and Sanskrit scholarship all favoured the Mahayana’s growth.
- Philosophy: Nagarjuna’s Madhyamika and Asanga–Vasubandhu’s Yogachara followed.
- Chhattisgarh angle: Xuanzang found Kosala entirely Mahayana; Sirpur’s viharas and bronzes reflect it.
- Conclusion: The divide was gradual — doctrinal, linguistic and social — rather than the result of one meeting.
Q2. (150–200 words) “Buddhism declined in the land of its birth but flourished abroad.” Examine the reasons.
Model answer outline
- Intro: By about the 13th century Buddhism had almost disappeared from India, while it thrived from Sri Lanka to Japan.
- Reasons for decline in India: Brahmanical revival and Bhakti; the Buddha absorbed as an avatar; Sanskritisation and ritualisation (Vajrayana); wealthy monasteries cut off from a weak lay base; loss of royal patronage after Harsha (except the Palas); the destruction of Nalanda and Vikramashila around 1200.
- Reasons for success abroad: Ashoka’s and Kanishka’s missions; trade routes; adaptable Mahayana and Vajrayana forms; state patronage in Sri Lanka, China, Tibet and Japan.
- Revival: Ambedkar’s Navayana (Nagpur, 1956); Buddhist tourism circuits.
- Conclusion: Buddhism’s ideas — ahimsa, compassion, rational ethics — survived in Indian culture even after its institutions declined.
Quick Revision Table
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| 1st Council | Rajagriha, c. 483 BCE, Ajatashatru, Mahakassapa; Sutta (Ananda), Vinaya (Upali) |
| 2nd Council | Vaishali, c. 383 BCE, Kalashoka, Sabakami; Sthaviravada vs Mahasanghika |
| 3rd Council | Pataliputra, c. 250 BCE, Ashoka, Moggaliputta Tissa; Abhidhamma, missions |
| 4th Council | Kundalvana (Kashmir), 1st–2nd c. CE, Kanishka, Vasumitra + Ashvaghosha; Mahavibhasha (Sanskrit) |
| Tripitaka | Sutta, Vinaya, Abhidhamma (Pali) |
| Hinayana / Theravada | Arhat; Pali; Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand |
| Mahayana | Bodhisattva; Sanskrit; images; China, Japan, Korea |
| Madhyamika | Nagarjuna — shunyata |
| Yogachara | Asanga, Vasubandhu — vijnana |
| Vajrayana | 7th–8th c. on; eastern India; Tara; Padmasambhava and Atisha to Tibet |
| Navayana | Ambedkar, Deekshabhoomi Nagpur, 14 October 1956 |
| Universities | Nalanda (Kumaragupta I), Vikramashila (Dharmapala) |
| Pilgrims | Faxian (Chandragupta II), Xuanzang (Harsha), Yijing |
| Chhattisgarh | Sirpur viharas (Anandaprabha, Balarjuna’s reign); Xuanzang’s Kosala; Bhongapal brick chaitya (5th–6th c.) |
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
- Councils: Rajagriha – Vaishali – Pataliputra – Kashmir; kings A-K-A-K; presidents Mahakassapa, Sabakami, Moggaliputta Tissa, Vasumitra.
- First schism at Vaishali (Sthaviravada vs Mahasanghika); Mahayana rose in the Kanishka era.
- Theravada (arhat, Pali) vs Mahayana (bodhisattva, Sanskrit, images); Mahayana schools Madhyamika (Nagarjuna) and Yogachara (Asanga, Vasubandhu); Vajrayana in eastern India and Tibet.
- Decline in India: Brahmanical revival, loss of patronage, monastic isolation, and the sack of Nalanda and Vikramashila around c. 1200.
- Dakshin Kosala was a Mahayana centre — Xuanzang’s account, the Sirpur viharas and the Bhongapal chaitya.
What’s Next
- Jainism, Buddhism and Religious Movements — Quick Revision
- Mahajanapadas, Magadha and the Mauryan Empire — Ashoka’s Dhamma and missions in detail
- Post-Mauryan Period, Guptas and Vakatakas — Kanishka, Gandhara art, Nalanda’s founding
- Tourism, Archaeological Sites and Heritage — visiting Sirpur
- Bhakti and Sufi Movements — the devotional revival that drew people away from Buddhism
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