History
Jainism, Buddhism and Religious Movements
Mahavira and Jain Philosophy
Mahavira's life, the 24 Tirthankaras, Triratna, five vows, anekantavada and syadvada, Jain councils, Digambara and Svetambara, and Jainism in Chhattisgarh.
Prerequisites
- Religious Ferment of the 6th Century BCE — why shramana sects arose and who Mahavira’s rivals were
- The Vedic Age — the ritual religion Jainism rejected
The Hook: A Seven-Hooded Parshvanath on the Shivnath
Connect
On the banks of the Shivnath in Durg district, the Uvasaggaharam Parshva Tirth (उवसग्गहरं पार्श्व तीर्थ) at Nagpura draws thousands of pilgrims to an image of Parshvanath sheltered by a seven-hooded serpent. East of Raipur, at Arang, the 11th-century Bhand Deval (भांड देवल) still holds three black-stone images of naked Tirthankaras.
Parshvanath, not Mahavira, is the hero of the first shrine. So was Mahavira really the “founder” of Jainism? And what exactly did he teach that a Prelims examiner can turn into a statement?
Why it matters: Prelims asks the biographical details (birthplace, parents, kaivalya, nirvana), the Tirthankara symbols, the councils and the Digambara–Svetambara differences. Mains asks you to explain anekantavada, the five vows and Jainism’s contribution to Indian culture.
Jainism Before Mahavira: The Tirthankaras
- Jina (जिन) = “conqueror” (of the senses); a follower of the Jina is a Jaina.
- Tirthankara (तीर्थंकर) = “ford-maker” — one who shows the crossing over the ocean of rebirth. Jain tradition counts 24 Tirthankaras.
- Mahavira was the 24th and last, so Jains regard him as the reformer of an older faith, not its founder.
| No. | Tirthankara | Symbol (lanchhana) | Note |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Rishabhanatha (Adinatha) | Bull | First Tirthankara; father of Bharata and Bahubali in Jain tradition |
| 22 | Neminatha (Arishtanemi) | Conch | Tradition links him with Girnar and makes him a kinsman of Krishna |
| 23 | Parshvanatha | Serpent | Prince of Kashi (Varanasi); nirvana on Sammed Shikhar (Parasnath hill, Jharkhand). The only Tirthankara before Mahavira whom historians generally treat as historical |
| 24 | Mahavira (Vardhamana) | Lion | Contemporary of the Buddha |
Parshva's four vows → Mahavira's five
Parshvanatha taught the chaturyama dharma (चातुर्याम धर्म), four vows: non-violence, truth, non-stealing, non-possession. Mahavira added the fifth, brahmacharya (celibacy). Tradition also says Parshva allowed monks an upper garment, while Mahavira gave up clothing altogether — one root of the later Digambara–Svetambara divide.
Life of Mahavira (महावीर)
Dates are traditional. The Svetambara reckoning puts his nirvana in 527 BCE (so birth 599 BCE). Many historians prefer a later date, and older textbooks give 540–468 BCE. In an MCQ, pick whichever option matches one of these pairs; in Mains, write “traditionally 599–527 BCE”.
| Detail | Fact |
|---|---|
| Name at birth | Vardhamana (वर्धमान) |
| Birthplace | Kundagrama (Kundapura) near Vaishali, Bihar |
| Father | Siddhartha, head of the Jnatrika (ज्ञातृक) Kshatriya clan |
| Mother | Trishala, a Lichchhavi princess, sister of the Lichchhavi chief Chetaka |
| Royal links | Chetaka’s daughter Chellana married Bimbisara of Magadha, so Mahavira was related to the Magadhan royal house |
| Family | Svetambara tradition: wife Yashoda, daughter Anojja (Priyadarshana). Digambara tradition: he never married |
| Renunciation | At 30, after his parents’ death |
| Austerity | About 12½ years of severe penance; gave up clothes |
| Kaivalya | At 42, under a sal tree on the bank of the Rijupalika river near Jrimbhikagrama — he became a Kevalin (omniscient) and Jina |
| Preaching | About 30 years, mainly in Magadha, Videha, Anga and Kosala, in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit |
| Disciples | 11 Ganadharas; Indrabhuti Gautama the chief; the Svetambara lineage descends from Sudharma |
| Death (nirvana) | At 72, at Pavapuri (Pava), Nalanda district, Bihar. Jains mark it on Deepavali |
| Titles | Mahavira (“great hero”), Jina, Kevalin, Nirgrantha (“free from bonds”); Buddhist texts call him Nigantha Nataputta |
timeline
title Mahavira's life (traditional Svetambara dates)
599 BCE : Born at Kundagrama near Vaishali
569 BCE : Renounces at 30
557 BCE : Kaivalya at 42, sal tree, Rijupalika river
527 BCE : Nirvana at 72, PavapuriJain Philosophy (जैन दर्शन)
Core ideas
| Idea | Meaning |
|---|---|
| No creator god | The universe is eternal and runs by its own laws. Jainism does not deny gods but places the Jinas above them; it rejects Vedic authority and sacrifice |
| Jiva and Ajiva | Reality is dual: jiva (जीव) = soul, present even in plants, water, earth and fire; ajiva = non-living (matter, space, time, motion, rest) |
| Karma as matter | Karma is fine physical matter that sticks to the soul because of passions and actions, and weighs it down in rebirth |
| Path to liberation | Stop the inflow of karma (samvara) and burn off the karma already bound (nirjara) through penance, until the soul is free (moksha / kaivalya) |
| Ahimsa (अहिंसा) | The central virtue, applied to all living things — hence strict vegetarianism, filtering water, avoiding farming that kills small creatures |
| Asceticism | Fasting and penance are stressed more than in Buddhism; sallekhana (सल्लेखना) / santhara — a vow of ritual fasting unto death — is permitted at the end of life |
Triratna (त्रिरत्न) — the Three Jewels
- Samyak Darshana — right faith
- Samyak Jnana — right knowledge
- Samyak Charitra — right conduct
All three together lead to liberation.
The five vows
| Vow | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Ahimsa | Non-violence |
| Satya | Truth |
| Asteya | Non-stealing |
| Aparigraha | Non-possession |
| Brahmacharya | Celibacy (added by Mahavira) |
Monks and nuns take them as mahavratas (महाव्रत) — great, absolute vows. Lay followers take milder anuvratas (अणुव्रत).
Anekantavada and Syadvada (अनेकांतवाद और स्याद्वाद)
- Anekantavada — “non-one-sidedness”: reality has many aspects, and no single viewpoint grasps the whole truth. The Jain version of the parable of the blind men and the elephant is the classic illustration.
- Syadvada — “the doctrine of ‘maybe’ (syat)”: every judgement is true only from a particular standpoint, so it should be qualified with syat (“in some respect”).
- Saptabhangi naya — the seven-fold predication: in some respect it is; is not; is and is not; is indescribable; and three further combinations.
- Mains use: anekantavada is often cited as an ethical basis for tolerance, dialogue and respect for other views.
Jain Councils (जैन संगीति)
| Council | Place | Date | Presided by | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| First | Pataliputra | c. 300 BCE (Chandragupta Maurya’s time) | Sthulabhadra | Canon compiled into 12 Angas; held while Bhadrabahu’s group was in the south |
| Second (final) | Valabhi (Gujarat) | 5th–6th century CE: 453 or 466 CE by Jain reckoning; many exam books give 512 CE | Devardhi Kshamashramana (Devarddhigani) | Svetambara canon finally compiled and written down — the Angas and Upangas |
Why the dates differ
The Valabhi council’s date is counted as “980 or 993 years after Mahavira’s nirvana”, and the nirvana date itself is disputed, so sources give 453, 466 or 512 CE. Some accounts also count earlier 4th-century CE meetings at Mathura and Valabhi, and therefore call Devardhi’s council the “third”. If an MCQ asks simply where the canon was finally written down, the answer is Valabhi.
Canon: the Svetambara Agamas in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit — the Angas (the 12th, Drishtivada, is lost, so 11 survive), Upangas and other groups. Well-known texts: Acharanga Sutra (monastic conduct) and Kalpasutra (lives of the Tirthankaras, attributed to Bhadrabahu). The Digambaras hold that the original canon was lost and rely on later texts such as the Shatkhandagama.
Digambara and Svetambara (दिगम्बर और श्वेताम्बर)
Origin as tradition tells it: during a twelve-year famine in Magadha in Chandragupta Maurya’s reign, Bhadrabahu led a group of monks south to Shravanabelagola (Karnataka); Chandragupta is said to have gone with him and ended his life by sallekhana on Chandragiri hill there. Sthulabhadra stayed in Magadha. When the southern monks returned, they found that the northern monks had begun to wear white clothes and had compiled the canon without them. The formal split came centuries later.
| Point | Digambara (“sky-clad”) | Svetambara (“white-clad”) |
|---|---|---|
| Monks | Go naked (nuns wear white robes) | Monks and nuns wear white |
| Lineage traced to | Bhadrabahu | Sthulabhadra |
| Women and liberation | A woman must be reborn as a man to attain moksha | Women can attain moksha |
| 19th Tirthankara Mallinatha | Male | Female (Malli) |
| Mahavira’s marriage | Never married | Married Yashoda, had a daughter |
| Canon | Original canon lost | Accept the Valabhi Agamas |
| Strongholds | Karnataka, Maharashtra, parts of MP and Rajasthan | Gujarat, Rajasthan |
Later sub-sects include the Sthanakvasi and Terapanthi (Svetambara branches that reject idol worship) and the Digambara Terapanth and Taranpanth.
Spread, Patrons and Contribution
| Patron | Link |
|---|---|
| Chandragupta Maurya | Tradition says he became a Jain and went south with Bhadrabahu |
| Kharavela of Kalinga (1st century BCE) | Jain king; Hathigumpha inscription; Udayagiri–Khandagiri caves near Bhubaneswar |
| Gangas, Kadambas, Rashtrakutas (Amoghavarsha I) | Patrons in Karnataka |
| Kumarapala (Chalukya/Solanki of Gujarat) | Patron of the Jain scholar Hemachandra |
| Traders | Ahimsa ruled out farming for strict Jains, so the community moved into trade and banking |
Why it stayed small but lasted: strict asceticism and ahimsa limited mass appeal, and Jainism did not try to spread abroad. But a well-organised lay community and merchant wealth kept it alive in India, while Buddhism faded there.
Contribution to culture:
- Language and literature: Prakrit and Apabhramsha; early Kannada literature (the Jain poets Pampa, Ponna, Ranna); Tamil classics associated with Jain authors (Silappadikaram is traditionally ascribed to Ilango Adigal, Jivaka Chintamani is a Jain epic).
- Architecture and sculpture:
- Udayagiri–Khandagiri caves (Odisha)
- Ellora caves 30–34 (Maharashtra)
- the monolithic Gommateshwara (Bahubali) at Shravanabelagola, about 57 ft high, commissioned by Chavundaraya, a minister of the Western Gangas, c. 981–983 CE; its Mahamastakabhisheka (head-anointing) is held about every 12 years
- the marble Dilwara temples (Mount Abu)
- Ranakpur, and Palitana (Shatrunjaya)
- Ethics: ahimsa and anekantavada shaped Indian ideas of non-violence and tolerance — Gandhi acknowledged the influence of the Jain thinker Shrimad Rajchandra.
Mains point: sallekhana and the courts
In 2015 the Rajasthan High Court held santhara/sallekhana punishable as attempted suicide; the Supreme Court stayed that order within weeks. It is a good example of the tension between religious freedom (Art 25) and the State’s regulation of life-ending practices. See Fundamental Rights.
Chhattisgarh Angle
| Site | District | What to know |
|---|---|---|
| Bhand Deval, Arang | Raipur | A Jain temple of the late 11th century (Kalachuri period), in the Bhumija style on a star-shaped (stellate) plan, with three large black-stone Digambara Tirthankara images in the sanctum |
| Uvasaggaharam Parshva Tirth, Nagpura | Durg | A major modern Jain pilgrimage centre on the Shivnath with a seven-hooded Parshvanath image |
| Sirpur | Mahasamund | Excavations exposed Jain viharas alongside Shaiva, Vaishnava and Buddhist buildings — evidence of religious pluralism. See Archaeological Sites |
Do not confuse the Bhand Deval with the much earlier Arang copper plates of the Rajarshitulya and Sharabhpuriya kings — see Regional Dynasties.
Memory Tricks
Mahavira's numbers: 30 – 42 – 72
Renounced at 30, Kaivalya at 42, Nirvana at 72 — “30 to leave, 42 to know, 72 to go”. The Buddha’s matching set is 29 – 35 – 80.
Tirthankara symbols: B-C-S-L
1st Bull, 22nd Conch, 23rd Serpent, 24th Lion — “Big Conch Sounds Loud”. Parshva’s serpent is the seven-hooded image at Nagpura.
Councils: P-S, V-D
Pataliputra – Sthulabhadra (first); Valabhi – Devardhi (final, canon written). Remember “Poor Students, Very Diligent” — the first pair comes first.
Don’t Confuse
| This | vs | That |
|---|---|---|
| Kundagrama (birth) — Jrimbhikagrama (kaivalya) — Pavapuri (nirvana) | vs | Buddha: Lumbini — Bodh Gaya — Sarnath — Kushinagar |
| Kaivalya / Kevala jnana (Jain omniscience) | vs | Nirvana / Bodhi (Buddhist enlightenment) |
| Digambara — Bhadrabahu, naked monks, Malli male | vs | Svetambara — Sthulabhadra, white robes, Malli female |
| Mahavrata — monks’ absolute vows | vs | Anuvrata — laity’s milder vows |
| Triratna (Jain) — right faith, knowledge, conduct | vs | Triratna (Buddhist) — Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha |
| Jain council, Pataliputra (Sthulabhadra) | vs | Third Buddhist council, Pataliputra (Moggaliputta Tissa, Ashoka) |
| Bhand Deval, Arang — 11th-century Jain temple | vs | Arang copper plates — 5th–6th-century royal grants |
Common Mistakes
MCQ traps
- “Mahavira founded Jainism.” Jain tradition makes him the 24th Tirthankara; Parshvanatha (23rd) is also treated as historical.
- “Mahavira added non-violence to Parshva’s vows.” No — he added brahmacharya. Ahimsa was already Parshva’s first vow.
- “Mahavira attained kaivalya under a pipal tree.” That is the Buddha. Mahavira’s tree was a sal, by the Rijupalika.
- “Mahavira died at Kushinagar.” That is the Buddha. Mahavira died at Pavapuri.
- “Jain scriptures are in Pali.” Jain Agamas are in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit; Pali is the Theravada Buddhist canon.
- “Jainism denies the soul.” Jainism holds that souls (jiva) exist even in plants and elements. It is Buddhism that teaches anatta.
Practice
All questions below are original practice questions written in CGPSC style. They are not previous-year questions.
Level 1: Foundation
- Mahavira attained kaivalya at the age of ______ near ______ on the bank of the river ______.
- The fifth vow added by Mahavira to Parshvanatha’s four is ______.
- The Jain canon was finally written down at the council of ______ presided over by ______.
Answers
- 42; Jrimbhikagrama; Rijupalika.
- Brahmacharya (celibacy).
- Valabhi; Devardhi Kshamashramana.
Level 2: Prelims MCQs
Q1. Consider the following statements about Mahavira:
- His mother Trishala was a Lichchhavi princess.
- He attained kaivalya under a pipal tree at Uruvela.
- He died at Pavapuri at the age of 72.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 2 and 3 only
- (c) 1 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer and explanation
(c) 1 and 3 only. Statement 2 mixes in the Buddha’s story: the pipal tree at Uruvela (Bodh Gaya) is where Siddhartha attained enlightenment. Mahavira attained kaivalya under a sal tree near Jrimbhikagrama on the Rijupalika river.
Q2. Match List I (Tirthankara) with List II (Symbol):
| List I | List II |
|---|---|
| A. Rishabhanatha | 1. Lion |
| B. Neminatha | 2. Serpent |
| C. Parshvanatha | 3. Bull |
| D. Mahavira | 4. Conch |
- (a) A-3, B-2, C-4, D-1
- (b) A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1
- (c) A-1, B-4, C-2, D-3
- (d) A-4, B-3, C-1, D-2
Answer and explanation
(b) A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1. Rishabhanatha (1st) — bull; Neminatha (22nd) — conch; Parshvanatha (23rd) — serpent; Mahavira (24th) — lion.
Q3. The Jain doctrine that reality has many aspects and that any statement is true only from a particular standpoint is:
- (a) Niyativada
- (b) Anekantavada
- (c) Shunyavada
- (d) Kshanikavada
Answer and explanation
(b) Anekantavada, expressed logically as syadvada with its seven-fold predication. Niyativada is the Ajivika fatalism; Shunyavada is Nagarjuna’s Mahayana doctrine of emptiness; Kshanikavada is the Buddhist doctrine of momentariness.
Q4. Which one of the following is not correctly matched with the Digambara sect?
- (a) Monks remain unclothed
- (b) Lineage traced to Bhadrabahu
- (c) The 19th Tirthankara Mallinatha was a woman
- (d) Women must be reborn as men to attain liberation
Answer and explanation
(c). That Malli was a woman is the Svetambara belief. Digambaras hold that Mallinatha was male, consistent with their view that a woman cannot attain liberation in a female body.
Q5. The Bhand Deval at Arang (Raipur district) is:
- (a) a Buddhist stupa of the Mauryan period
- (b) a Shaiva temple of the Panduvanshis
- (c) a Jain temple of about the 11th century
- (d) a Vaishnava temple built by Queen Vasata
Answer and explanation
(c). The Bhand Deval is a late-11th-century Jain temple on a star-shaped plan, with three black-stone Digambara Tirthankara images. The Vishnu temple built by Queen Vasata is the Lakshman temple at Sirpur.
Level 3: Mains Answer Writing
Q1. (60 words) What is anekantavada? State its relevance today.
Model answer outline
- Definition: The Jain doctrine of “non-one-sidedness”: reality is many-sided, and every judgement holds only from a standpoint (syat). It is expressed through syadvada and the seven-fold predication; the blind men and the elephant parable illustrates it.
- Relevance: intellectual humility; tolerance in a plural society; dialogue in place of dogma in religious and political disputes.
Q2. (150–200 words) Discuss the main teachings of Mahavira and assess Jainism’s contribution to Indian culture.
Model answer outline
- Intro: Mahavira (traditionally 599–527 BCE), the 24th Tirthankara, reorganised an older shramana tradition into Jainism.
- Teachings: rejection of Vedic authority and a creator god; jiva–ajiva dualism; karma as matter; Triratna; five vows (brahmacharya added to Parshva’s four); strict ahimsa and penance; anekantavada and syadvada.
- Contribution:
- Ethics: ahimsa, vegetarianism, tolerance, later echoed by Gandhi.
- Literature: Prakrit and Apabhramsha canon; early Kannada and Tamil classics.
- Art: Udayagiri–Khandagiri, Ellora, Shravanabelagola, Dilwara, Ranakpur.
- Economy: a mercantile community that financed trade and charity.
- Chhattisgarh angle: the 11th-century Bhand Deval at Arang and the Parshva Tirth at Nagpura show Jainism’s long presence in the state.
- Conclusion: Small in numbers but large in influence, Jainism shaped India’s moral vocabulary of non-violence and many-sided truth.
Quick Revision Table
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Tirthankaras | 24; 1st Rishabha (bull), 22nd Nemi (conch), 23rd Parshva (serpent, Kashi), 24th Mahavira (lion) |
| Mahavira’s dates | Traditional 599–527 BCE; older textbooks 540–468 BCE |
| Birth | Kundagrama near Vaishali; father Siddhartha (Jnatrika); mother Trishala (Lichchhavi) |
| Kaivalya | At 42; sal tree; Rijupalika river; Jrimbhikagrama |
| Nirvana | At 72; Pavapuri |
| Parshva’s vows | 4 (chaturyama); Mahavira added brahmacharya |
| Triratna | Right faith, right knowledge, right conduct |
| Philosophy | Jiva–ajiva; karma as matter; anekantavada; syadvada; saptabhangi |
| 1st council | Pataliputra, c. 300 BCE, Sthulabhadra |
| Final council | Valabhi, 453/466 CE (exam books 512 CE), Devardhi Kshamashramana; canon written |
| Language of canon | Ardhamagadhi Prakrit |
| Digambara / Svetambara | Bhadrabahu / Sthulabhadra |
| Gommateshwara | Shravanabelagola; Chavundaraya; c. 981–983 CE; about 57 ft |
| Chhattisgarh | Bhand Deval, Arang (11th c.); Uvasaggaharam Parshva Tirth, Nagpura (Durg) |
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
- Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara; Parshvanatha (23rd) gave four vows and Mahavira added brahmacharya.
- Biography numbers: 30 – 42 – 72; places: Kundagrama – Jrimbhikagrama (sal, Rijupalika) – Pavapuri.
- Jain philosophy: no creator god, jiva–ajiva, karma as matter, Triratna, strict ahimsa, anekantavada/syadvada.
- Councils: Pataliputra (Sthulabhadra) and Valabhi (Devardhi) — the Svetambara canon was written down at Valabhi.
- Digambara–Svetambara split traced to Bhadrabahu’s southward migration; in Chhattisgarh, Jainism’s major monument is the Bhand Deval, Arang.
What’s Next
- Buddha and Buddhist Philosophy — includes a full Jainism vs Buddhism comparison
- Buddhist Councils and Sects
- Indian Philosophy — Jain epistemology and ethics for Mains GS-IV
- Indian Art, Literature and Culture — Jain caves, temples and sculpture
- Tourism, Archaeological Sites and Heritage — Arang and Sirpur
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