History
The Mughal Empire
Mughal Art, Architecture, Painting and Literature
Mughal architecture from Humayun's tomb to the Taj, Fatehpur Sikri, Mughal painting (Mansur, Abul Hasan), music and Persian and Hindi literature, for CGPSC.
Prerequisites
- Akbar to Aurangzeb — who ruled when, so you can place each building and painter in the right reign.
- Indian Art, Literature and Culture — the wider frame of Indian temple, Indo-Islamic and regional art.
The Hook: From Raipur to Agra
Connect
A group of students from Raipur takes the train to Agra for a heritage tour. On day one they see Humayun’s Tomb in Delhi: red sandstone, a white marble dome, a garden cut into four. On day two they see the Taj Mahal: all white marble, coloured stones inlaid like flowers. A guide tells them the first was a rehearsal for the second, built about 80 years apart.
Back home, the same students know the Bhoramdeo temple in Kabirdham and the brick Lakshman temple at Sirpur, built on a completely different idea of sacred space. What made Mughal buildings and paintings look the way they do, and how did the style change from Babur to Aurangzeb?
Why it matters: “Who built X?”, “which was the first…?” and match-the-painter questions are standard Prelims fare. Mains GS-I asks you to describe the synthesis in Mughal art and the role of imperial patronage.
Architecture: Reign by Reign
Babur and Humayun
- Babur loved gardens and laid out the Persian charbagh (चारबाग), a garden divided into four parts by walkways and water channels. The Aram Bagh (Ram Bagh) at Agra is associated with him. He also built mosques at Panipat (the Kabuli Bagh mosque) and Sambhal.
- Humayun founded Din-panah in Delhi (1533), on the site later rebuilt by Sher Shah as the Purana Qila.
- Sher Shah Suri: the Qila-i-Kuhna mosque inside the Purana Qila, and his tomb at Sasaram (Bihar), set in an artificial lake: the high point of the Lodi–Sur style.
Akbar: red sandstone and synthesis
| Building | Key facts |
|---|---|
| Humayun’s Tomb, Delhi | Built 1565–1572, commissioned by Humayun’s widow Bega Begum (Haji Begum); architect Mirak Mirza Ghiyas of Herat, completed by his son. First garden-tomb of the subcontinent, set in a charbagh; red sandstone with white marble; double dome. Model for the Taj. UNESCO World Heritage Site (1993) |
| Agra Fort | Rebuilt in red sandstone from 1565. Contains the Jahangiri Mahal (Akbar’s time) and later Shah Jahan’s marble halls. UNESCO (1983) |
| Fatehpur Sikri | New capital near Agra, built from about 1571 to honour Shaikh Salim Chishti, whose blessing Akbar credited for the birth of Salim (Jahangir). Abandoned as capital around 1585. UNESCO (1986) |
| Buland Darwaza | Monumental gateway of the Jama Masjid at Fatehpur Sikri, built to commemorate the conquest of Gujarat (1572–73); usually dated to about 1575. One of the tallest gateways in the world |
| Other Fatehpur Sikri buildings | Jama Masjid; tomb of Salim Chishti (white marble, with fine jali screens); Panch Mahal (five-storeyed pavilion); Diwan-i-Khas (with a single central carved pillar); Diwan-i-Am; the palace known as Jodha Bai’s palace; Birbal’s house |
| Akbar’s Tomb, Sikandra | Planned by Akbar; completed by Jahangir (around 1613) |
| Other forts | Lahore Fort, Allahabad Fort |
Features of Akbar’s style: red sandstone with white marble inlay; a blend of the arch and dome (Islamic) with beam-and-bracket (trabeate) construction, chhatris, jharokhas and carved brackets from Indian (Rajput and Gujarati) traditions.
Jahangir: gardens and the move to marble
| Building | Key facts |
|---|---|
| Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah, Agra | Built 1622–1628 by Nur Jahan for her father Mirza Ghiyas Beg (Itimad-ud-Daulah). Among the first Mughal buildings faced entirely in white marble, with extensive pietra dura (पच्चीकारी, parchin kari) inlay of coloured stones. Called the “Baby Taj”; the transition from red sandstone to white marble |
| Gardens | Shalimar Bagh in Srinagar and other Kashmir gardens laid out under Jahangir |
| Akbar’s tomb | Completed at Sikandra |
| Jahangir’s tomb | At Shahdara, Lahore |
Jahangir preferred painting and gardens to grand building.
Shah Jahan: the golden age of white marble
| Building | Key facts |
|---|---|
| Taj Mahal, Agra | Tomb of Mumtaz Mahal (died 1631). Built from about 1632; the complex was complete by about 1653. Chief architect traditionally named as Ustad Ahmad Lahori. White Makrana marble (Rajasthan), pietra dura, double dome, four minarets, charbagh garden ending at the river (the tomb sits at the garden’s edge, not its centre). UNESCO (1983) |
| Red Fort (Lal Qila), Delhi | Built 1639–1648 for the new capital Shahjahanabad. Diwan-i-Am (public audience) and Diwan-i-Khas (private audience), which held the Peacock Throne. UNESCO (2007) |
| Jama Masjid, Delhi | Built 1650–1656; among the largest mosques in India |
| Moti Masjid, Agra Fort | “Pearl Mosque”, white marble |
| Others | Shalimar Gardens, Lahore; marble halls in Agra Fort (Khas Mahal, Musamman Burj, where Shah Jahan spent his captivity) |
Features of Shah Jahan’s style: white marble; pietra dura; cusped (multi-foil) arches; bulbous double domes; strict symmetry; refined proportions.
Aurangzeb and after
| Building | Key facts |
|---|---|
| Moti Masjid, Red Fort, Delhi | Small private mosque built for Aurangzeb |
| Badshahi Mosque, Lahore | Completed in 1673; one of the largest Mughal mosques |
| Bibi ka Maqbara, Aurangabad | Tomb of Aurangzeb’s wife Dilras Banu Begum, built by their son Azam Shah; modelled on the Taj and called the “Taj of the Deccan”, but smaller and less refined |
| Safdarjung’s Tomb, Delhi | 1750s; often described as the last major Mughal garden tomb |
Decline: Aurangzeb built little apart from mosques; with the treasury drained by war, quality and scale fell.
Mughal sites on the UNESCO World Heritage List
Agra Fort (1983) · Taj Mahal (1983) · Fatehpur Sikri (1986) · Humayun’s Tomb, Delhi (1993) · Red Fort Complex, Delhi (2007).
graph LR
A["Humayun's Tomb
1565–72
red sandstone + marble,
first garden-tomb"] --> B["Fatehpur Sikri
from c.1571
sandstone, trabeate + arcuate"]
B --> C["Itimad-ud-Daulah
1622–28
white marble, pietra dura"]
C --> D["Taj Mahal
c.1632–53
the climax"]
D --> E["Bibi ka Maqbara
Aurangzeb's reign
smaller copy"]Mughal Painting
Origins: Humayun
Two Persian (Safavid) masters, Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd al-Samad (Khwaja Abdus Samad), joined Humayun during his exile and came with him to India. They trained the first generation of Mughal painters.
Akbar: the imperial studio
- A large tasvir-khana (तस्वीरख़ाना) (painting workshop) with many artists, mostly Indian (Hindu and Muslim), working in teams.
- Hamzanama (हमज़ानामा): the first great project, an illustrated romance of Amir Hamza with about 1,400 large paintings on cloth, produced over roughly 15 years.
- Illustrated Persian translations of the Mahabharata (Razmnama) and Ramayana, plus the Akbarnama and Baburnama.
- Leading painters: Daswant and Basawan.
- European influence: Jesuit missionaries brought European prints and paintings; Mughal artists adopted shading, perspective and naturalism.
Jahangir: the golden age of painting
| Painter | Speciality |
|---|---|
| Ustad Mansur | Birds, animals and flowers (the zebra, the Siberian crane, the turkey cock). Called Nadir-ul-Asr (“Wonder of the Age”) |
| Abul Hasan | Portraits and court scenes; given the title Nadir-uz-Zaman (“Wonder of the Time”) by Jahangir in 1618 |
| Bishandas | Portraits; sent with the Mughal embassy to Persia to paint Shah Abbas and his court |
| Manohar, Govardhan, Bichitr | Portraits, court and allegorical scenes |
- Shift from big team-made manuscript illustration to individual paintings and portraits, collected in albums (muraqqa).
- Jahangir claimed in his memoirs that he could tell which artist had painted each face in a group picture.
- Allegorical portraits of the emperor (e.g. Jahangir preferring a Sufi shaikh to kings) became a genre.
Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb
- Under Shah Jahan, painting became formal and jewel-like, focusing on court ceremony (illustrations of the Padshahnama).
- Aurangzeb withdrew court patronage. Artists moved to Rajput (Rajasthani) and Pahari (hill) courts and to provincial nawabs, which helped those regional schools flourish in the 18th century.
Music
- Tansen (तानसेन) of Gwalior, Akbar’s most famous court musician; ragas such as Mian ki Malhar and Darbari Kanada are traditionally linked to him.
- Baz Bahadur, ruler of Malwa, was a noted musician before Akbar’s conquest (1561).
- Aurangzeb stopped music at court, though music continued in the households of nobles.
- Under Muhammad Shah “Rangila” (1719–1748), the court musicians Sadarang and Adarang shaped the khayal style of Hindustani music.
Literature
Persian (the court language)
| Work | Author | Note |
|---|---|---|
| Baburnama | Babur | In Chagatai Turkish; Persian translation by Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan |
| Humayun-nama | Gulbadan Begum | Humayun’s life, by his half-sister |
| Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari | Abul Fazl | Official history; the Ain is the third volume, an administrative and statistical survey |
| Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh | Abdul Qadir Badauni | Critical, unofficial view of Akbar’s religious policy |
| Tabaqat-i-Akbari | Nizamuddin Ahmad | General history up to Akbar |
| Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri | Jahangir | Memoir |
| Padshahnama | Abdul Hamid Lahori | Shah Jahan’s reign |
| Majma-ul-Bahrain, Sirr-i-Akbar | Dara Shikoh | Sufism and Vedanta compared; Persian Upanishads |
| Muntakhab-ul-Lubab | Khafi Khan | History up to the early 18th century, written privately |
Translations: Akbar’s Maktab Khana (translation bureau) rendered the Mahabharata into Persian as the Razmnama, and also the Ramayana. Faizi translated the mathematical text Lilavati.
Hindi and regional
- Tulsidas (तुलसीदास): Ramcharitmanas in Awadhi, in Akbar’s time.
- Surdas (सूरदास): Sursagar, Krishna poetry in Braj.
- Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan: Hindi dohas (रहीम के दोहे).
- Malik Muhammad Jayasi: Padmavat (c. 1540, Sher Shah’s time).
- Keshavdas: Braj poet at the Bundela court of Orchha.
Chhattisgarh Angle (Mains)
- Chhattisgarh’s own monumental tradition is earlier and different: the brick Lakshman temple of Sirpur, the Kalachuri temples, and Bhoramdeo (Nagara-style temple of the Phaninagavanshi period). In a comparative answer, contrast the temple as the home of a deity with the Mughal tomb-in-garden as an image of paradise and imperial power.
- Mughal influence reached Chhattisgarh mainly indirectly, through Maratha and later colonial-era buildings and through the spread of Persian administrative and Hindustani musical culture.
- For the state’s heritage sites, see Tourism, Archaeological Sites and Heritage.
Memory Tricks
Red to white: 'Humayun Fathers, Itimad Teaches, Bibi copies'
Humayun’s Tomb (red + marble, 1565–72) → Fatehpur Sikri (red, c.1571) → Itimad-ud-Daulah (first white, 1622–28) → Taj (white climax, c.1632–53) → Bibi ka Maqbara (copy). H-F-I-T-B.
Jahangir's painters: 'Mansur = Mammals, Bishandas = Bust'
Mansur painted animals and birds (Nadir-ul-Asr). Abul Hasan got Nadir-uz-Zaman (Z for the later title, 1618). Bishandas painted portraits and went to Persia.
UNESCO Mughal five: '83-83-86-93-07'
Agra Fort and Taj 1983 (the twins), Fatehpur Sikri 1986, Humayun’s Tomb 1993, Red Fort 2007.
Don’t Confuse
| This | vs | That |
|---|---|---|
| Itimad-ud-Daulah — “Baby Taj”, Agra, built by Nur Jahan | vs | Bibi ka Maqbara — “Taj of the Deccan”, Aurangabad, built by Azam Shah |
| Moti Masjid, Agra Fort — Shah Jahan | vs | Moti Masjid, Red Fort, Delhi — Aurangzeb |
| Jama Masjid, Fatehpur Sikri — Akbar | vs | Jama Masjid, Delhi — Shah Jahan (1650–56) |
| Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar — Jahangir | vs | Shalimar Gardens, Lahore — Shah Jahan |
| Nadir-ul-Asr — Mansur | vs | Nadir-uz-Zaman — Abul Hasan |
| Akbarnama — Abul Fazl (official) | vs | Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh — Badauni (critical) |
| Humayun’s Tomb — built by Bega Begum | vs | Humayun-nama — written by Gulbadan Begum |
Common Mistakes
MCQ traps
- “Akbar’s tomb at Sikandra was completed by Akbar.” It was completed by Jahangir.
- “The Taj Mahal was the first Mughal building in white marble with pietra dura.” No. The tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah (1622–28) came first.
- “Humayun’s tomb was built by Humayun.” It was built after his death, commissioned by his widow Bega Begum.
- “The Buland Darwaza celebrates the conquest of the Deccan.” It is linked to the Gujarat campaign (1572–73).
- “Aurangzeb was a great patron of painting.” He withdrew court patronage; artists moved to Rajput and Pahari courts.
Practice
All questions below are original practice questions written in CGPSC style. They are not previous-year questions.
Level 1: Foundation
- The Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri commemorates Akbar’s conquest of ______.
- The tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah at Agra was built by ______.
- The Persian translation of the Mahabharata made under Akbar is called the ______.
Answers
- Gujarat (1572–73).
- Nur Jahan, for her father Mirza Ghiyas Beg.
- Razmnama.
Level 2: Prelims MCQs
Q1. Consider the following statements:
- Humayun’s Tomb was the first garden-tomb on the Indian subcontinent.
- The tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah was built during the reign of Shah Jahan.
- The Red Fort of Delhi was built for Shah Jahan’s new city of Shahjahanabad.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 2 and 3 only
- (c) 1 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer and explanation
(c) 1 and 3 only. Statement 1 is correct: Humayun’s Tomb (1565–72) set the garden-tomb model. Statement 2 is wrong: the Itimad-ud-Daulah tomb (1622–28) was built by Nur Jahan in Jahangir’s reign. Statement 3 is correct: the Red Fort (1639–48) was the palace-fortress of Shahjahanabad.
Q2. Match List I (Painter) with List II (Known for):
| List I | List II |
|---|---|
| A. Ustad Mansur | 1. Portraits; sent to the Persian court |
| B. Abul Hasan | 2. Title Nadir-uz-Zaman |
| C. Bishandas | 3. Birds and animals; Nadir-ul-Asr |
| D. Abd al-Samad | 4. Persian master who came with Humayun |
- (a) A-3, B-2, C-1, D-4
- (b) A-2, B-3, C-1, D-4
- (c) A-3, B-2, C-4, D-1
- (d) A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
Answer and explanation
(a) A-3, B-2, C-1, D-4. Mansur was the great nature painter, Abul Hasan received the title Nadir-uz-Zaman in 1618, Bishandas specialised in portraits and went with the embassy to Shah Abbas, and Abd al-Samad was one of the two Persian masters who founded the Mughal studio.
Q3. Which of the following Mughal monuments was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List most recently?
- (a) Fatehpur Sikri
- (b) Humayun’s Tomb
- (c) Red Fort Complex
- (d) Agra Fort
Answer and explanation
(c) Red Fort Complex (2007). Agra Fort was inscribed in 1983, Fatehpur Sikri in 1986 and Humayun’s Tomb in 1993.
Q4. The Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh, which is critical of Akbar’s religious policy, was written by:
- (a) Abul Fazl
- (b) Nizamuddin Ahmad
- (c) Abdul Qadir Badauni
- (d) Abdul Hamid Lahori
Answer and explanation
(c) Badauni, an orthodox scholar at Akbar’s court whose private history disapproves of the emperor’s religious experiments. Abul Fazl wrote the official Akbarnama, Nizamuddin Ahmad the Tabaqat-i-Akbari, and Abdul Hamid Lahori the Padshahnama of Shah Jahan.
Q5. Which one of the following pairs is correctly matched?
- (a) Bibi ka Maqbara — Shah Jahan
- (b) Badshahi Mosque, Lahore — Aurangzeb
- (c) Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar — Akbar
- (d) Jama Masjid, Delhi — Jahangir
Answer and explanation
(b) Badshahi Mosque, Lahore — Aurangzeb (completed 1673). Bibi ka Maqbara was built in Aurangzeb’s reign by his son Azam Shah; Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar, belongs to Jahangir’s time; the Jama Masjid of Delhi was built by Shah Jahan (1650–56).
Level 3: Mains Answer Writing
Q1. (150–200 words) “Mughal architecture was a synthesis of Persian and Indian traditions.” Illustrate with examples from Akbar to Shah Jahan.
Model answer outline
- Intro: Mughal architecture fused Timurid–Persian planning with Indian building traditions, under heavy imperial patronage.
- Persian / Central Asian elements: charbagh gardens, double domes, iwans (high arched portals), axial symmetry: Humayun’s Tomb (1565–72) by a Herati architect.
- Indian elements: red sandstone, trabeate beam-and-bracket construction, chhatris, jharokhas, carved brackets: Fatehpur Sikri’s Panch Mahal, Diwan-i-Khas and the palace known as Jodha Bai’s.
- Evolution: Itimad-ud-Daulah (1622–28) introduced white marble and pietra dura; the Taj (c. 1632–53) perfected proportion, inlay and the garden-tomb idea.
- Social meaning: buildings projected the emperor’s power and the ideal of paradise; workshops employed Hindu and Muslim craftsmen.
- Chhattisgarh contrast: Sirpur and Bhoramdeo show the older temple tradition the Mughal style drew on in other regions.
- Conclusion: the style was a genuine synthesis, not a transplant, which is why it shaped later Rajput, Sikh and colonial-era buildings.
Q2. (60 words) Why is Jahangir’s reign called the golden age of Mughal painting?
Model answer outline
- Shift from team manuscript illustration to individual portraits and nature studies in albums.
- Masters such as Mansur (animals, birds), Abul Hasan (Nadir-uz-Zaman) and Bishandas (portraits).
- Jahangir’s personal connoisseurship; naturalism and European-influenced shading.
- Conclusion: patron and painters together raised Mughal painting to its peak.
Quick Revision Table
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Charbagh | Four-part Persian garden; Babur (Aram Bagh, Agra) |
| Humayun’s Tomb | 1565–72; Bega Begum; Mirak Mirza Ghiyas; first garden-tomb; UNESCO 1993 |
| Fatehpur Sikri | From c. 1571; Salim Chishti; capital till c. 1585; UNESCO 1986 |
| Buland Darwaza | Gujarat conquest (1572–73); c. 1575 |
| Akbar’s tomb | Sikandra; completed by Jahangir |
| Itimad-ud-Daulah | 1622–28; Nur Jahan; white marble + pietra dura; “Baby Taj” |
| Taj Mahal | c. 1632–53; Mumtaz Mahal; Ustad Ahmad Lahori; Makrana marble; UNESCO 1983 |
| Red Fort, Delhi | 1639–48; Shahjahanabad; UNESCO 2007 |
| Jama Masjid, Delhi | 1650–56; Shah Jahan |
| Badshahi Mosque | Lahore, 1673; Aurangzeb |
| Bibi ka Maqbara | Aurangabad; Azam Shah; “Taj of the Deccan” |
| Painting founders | Mir Sayyid Ali, Abd al-Samad (Humayun) |
| Akbar’s painters | Daswant, Basawan; Hamzanama (~1,400 paintings) |
| Jahangir’s painters | Mansur (Nadir-ul-Asr), Abul Hasan (Nadir-uz-Zaman, 1618), Bishandas |
| Music | Tansen (Akbar); Sadarang–Adarang, khayal (Muhammad Shah) |
| Histories | Akbarnama (Abul Fazl), Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh (Badauni), Padshahnama (Lahori), Muntakhab-ul-Lubab (Khafi Khan) |
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
- Mughal architecture moved from red sandstone (Akbar) through white marble with pietra dura (Itimad-ud-Daulah) to the Taj Mahal, then declined under Aurangzeb.
- Humayun’s Tomb set the garden-tomb model; Fatehpur Sikri shows the Persian–Indian synthesis most clearly.
- Mughal painting began with two Persian masters, grew into Akbar’s large studio, and peaked under Jahangir (Mansur, Abul Hasan, Bishandas).
- Aurangzeb’s withdrawal of patronage pushed painters to Rajput and Pahari courts.
- Persian histories (Akbarnama, Badauni) and Hindi poetry (Tulsidas, Surdas, Rahim) both flourished under Mughal rule.
What’s Next
- Later Mughals and Decline — the political collapse after 1707
- Indian Art, Literature and Culture — the full sweep of Indian art for Prelims
- Bhakti and Sufi Movements — Tulsidas, Surdas and the Chishti order behind Fatehpur Sikri
- The Mughal Empire — Quick Revision — the whole chapter on one page
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