History
Socio-Religious Reform Movements
Women's Emancipation and Caste Reform
Sati, widow remarriage and child marriage laws, Phule, Narayana Guru, Periyar, Ambedkar, and Chhattisgarh reformers Guru Ghasidas and Sundarlal Sharma.
Prerequisites
- Rammohan Roy, the Brahmo Samaj and the Prarthana Samaj: the sati campaign and the Native Marriage Act (1872) begin here.
- Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission and the Theosophical Society: the Arya Samaj’s stand on caste and women.
- Fundamental Rights: Articles 15, 17 and 23 turned many of these reform demands into constitutional guarantees.
The Hook: A White Pillar in Girodpuri
Connect
Every year in the month of Phalgun (February–March), lakhs of people gather at Girodpuri (गिरौदपुरी) in Baloda Bazar-Bhatapara district for the Guru Darshan Mela at the birthplace of Guru Ghasidas, whose Jayanti falls on 18 December. The white flag on the jaitkhamb (जैतखाम) stands for a simple creed: “मनखे-मनखे एक समान” (every human being is equal).
Guru Ghasidas taught this to the people of Chhattisgarh decades before Jyotiba Phule started the Satyashodhak Samaj in Pune or Narayana Guru consecrated a temple for the Ezhavas in Kerala. How did reformers across India, from Bengal to Kerala to Chhattisgarh, fight the twin inequalities of gender and caste? And which laws came out of their work?
Why it matters: Prelims asks for laws and years (1829, 1856, 1872, 1891, 1929) and founder–organisation pairs (Satyashodhak 1873, SNDP 1903, Self-Respect 1925, Bahishkrit Hitakarini 1924). Chhattisgarh Prelims asks about Guru Ghasidas and Sundarlal Sharma. Mains asks you to assess women’s and caste reform movements and their limits.
Part A: Women’s Emancipation (महिला उत्थान)
The problems reformers attacked
Sati, female infanticide, child marriage, the ban on widow remarriage, polygamy, purdah, denial of education and of property rights.
Laws in sequence
timeline
title Laws on women's status in British India
1829 : Bengal Sati Regulation XVII (Bentinck)
1856 : Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act (Act XV)
1870 : Female Infanticide Prevention Act
1872 : Native Marriage Act (girls 14, boys 18)
1891 : Age of Consent Act (10 to 12 years)
1929 : Child Marriage Restraint Act, Sarda Act (girls 14, boys 18)| Law | Year | Governor-General / sponsor | Key point |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sati Regulation XVII | 4 December 1829 | Lord William Bentinck | Sati made illegal in Bengal; later extended to Madras and Bombay. Campaign by Rammohan Roy |
| Female infanticide | Bengal regulations of 1795 and 1804; Act of 1870 | — | Infanticide declared murder; 1870 Act made registration of births compulsory in affected areas |
| Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act (Act XV) | 1856 (26 July) | Lord Canning (passed during his term) | Legalised widow remarriage. Campaign by Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar |
| Native Marriage Act | 1872 | Campaign by Keshab Chandra Sen | Civil marriage; girls 14, boys 18; no polygamy |
| Age of Consent Act | 1891 | Supported by Behramji Malabari | Raised the age of consent for girls from 10 to 12. Followed the death of the child bride Phulmoni (1889). Bal Gangadhar Tilak opposed it as interference in Hindu custom |
| Child Marriage Restraint Act (“Sarda Act”) | 1929 (in force from 1 April 1930) | Harbilas Sarda | Minimum marriage age 14 for girls, 18 for boys, for all of British India |
Reformers for women
| Reformer | Region | Contribution |
|---|---|---|
| Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (ईश्वरचंद्र विद्यासागर), 1820–1891 | Bengal | Used Sanskrit texts (the Parashara Smriti) to argue for widow remarriage; led to the 1856 Act. Opened girls’ schools; linked with the Bethune School (founded 1849 by J.E.D. Bethune); campaigned against polygamy and child marriage |
| Jyotiba and Savitribai Phule (सावित्रीबाई फुले) | Maharashtra | Opened a girls’ school in Pune in 1848. Savitribai taught there and is often called India’s first woman teacher of modern times. They also ran a home to prevent infanticide among widows |
| Pandita Ramabai (पंडिता रमाबाई) | Maharashtra | Arya Mahila Samaj (1882), Pune; Sharada Sadan (1889), a home and school for widows (Bombay, later Pune); Mukti Mission at Kedgaon (late 1890s) |
| D.K. Karve (धोंडो केशव कर्वे) | Maharashtra | Hindu Widows’ Home (1896), Pune; the first women’s university in India (1916), now SNDT Women’s University. Bharat Ratna (1958) |
| Kandukuri Veeresalingam (कंदुकुरी वीरेशलिंगम) | Andhra | Journal Viveka Vardhini (1876); Rajahmundry Social Reform Association (1878); arranged the first widow remarriage in the region (11 December 1881) |
| Behramji Malabari | Bombay (Parsi) | Campaigned for the Age of Consent Act (1891); co-founded Seva Sadan (1908) |
| Tarabai Shinde | Maharashtra | Stri Purush Tulana (1882), an early feminist critique of patriarchy |
| Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain | Bengal | Sultana’s Dream (1905); Muslim girls’ education |
Women’s organisations
| Organisation | Year | Founder(s) |
|---|---|---|
| Bharat Stree Mahamandal | 1910 | Sarala Devi Chaudhurani |
| Women’s Indian Association | 1917 | Annie Besant, Margaret Cousins and others, Madras |
| All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) | 1927 | Margaret Cousins and others |
Part B: Caste Reform and Anti-Caste Movements (जाति सुधार)
Two approaches
- Reform from above: upper-caste reformers (Brahmo, Arya Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Gandhi) urged the abolition of untouchability within Hinduism.
- Assertion from below: leaders from the oppressed castes (Phule, Narayana Guru, Ayyankali, Periyar, Ambedkar) organised their own communities and questioned the caste order itself.
Leaders and movements
| Leader | Region | Organisation / event | Year |
|---|---|---|---|
| Jyotiba Phule (ज्योतिबा फुले), 1827–1890 | Maharashtra | Satyashodhak Samaj (सत्यशोधक समाज) (“Truth-Seekers’ Society”); book Gulamgiri (“Slavery”) | 24 September 1873; Gulamgiri 1873 |
| Sree Narayana Guru (श्री नारायण गुरु), 1856–1928 | Kerala | Consecrated a Shiva idol at Aruvippuram (1888), challenging the Brahmin monopoly of temple rites; SNDP Yogam (Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam); motto “One caste, one religion, one God for man” | Aruvippuram 1888; SNDP 1903 |
| Ayyankali | Kerala | Led the Pulaya community’s struggle for the right to use public roads and attend schools; Sadhu Jana Paripalana Sangham | 1907 |
| Vaikom Satyagraha | Travancore (Kerala) | For the right of lower castes to use roads around the Vaikom temple; T.K. Madhavan, K.P. Kesava Menon; Periyar took part | 1924–25 |
| Guruvayur Satyagraha | Malabar (Kerala) | Temple entry; led by K. Kelappan | 1931–32 |
| — | Travancore | Temple Entry Proclamation opened State temples to all Hindus | 1936 |
| E.V. Ramasamy “Periyar” (पेरियार) | Tamil Nadu | Self-Respect Movement (आत्मसम्मान आंदोलन): rationalism, against Brahmanical dominance, for women’s rights and self-respect marriages | 1925 |
| Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (डॉ. भीमराव अंबेडकर) | Maharashtra | Journal Mook Nayak (1920); Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (1924); Mahad Satyagraha (1927) for the right to draw water from the Chavdar tank; Kalaram temple entry, Nashik (1930); Poona Pact (1932); Independent Labour Party (1936) | 1920–1936 |
| Mahatma Gandhi | All-India | Harijan Sevak Sangh (1932); weekly Harijan (1933); all-India Harijan tour (1933–34) | 1932–34 |
Gandhi and Ambedkar: the core Mains contrast
Gandhi saw untouchability as a sin that caste Hindus must atone for. He wanted to remove it while reforming Hinduism from within. Ambedkar saw caste itself as the problem and demanded political rights, legal safeguards and education for the depressed classes. The Poona Pact (1932) replaced separate electorates for the depressed classes with reserved seats in joint electorates. Both strands shaped the Constitution: Article 17 abolishes untouchability, and Articles 15(4), 16(4), 330 and 332 provide for reservation.
Part C: Chhattisgarh’s Reformers
Guru Ghasidas (गुरु घासीदास) and the Satnam Panth
| Item | Detail |
|---|---|
| Born | 18 December 1756, Girodpuri (गिरौदपुरी), now in Baloda Bazar-Bhatapara district |
| Founded | Satnam Panth (सतनाम पंथ); his followers are the Satnami community |
| Creed | “Satnam” (Truth is the name of God); “मनखे-मनखे एक समान” (all human beings are equal) |
| Rejected | Idol worship, caste discrimination, animal sacrifice, meat and liquor |
| Symbol | Jaitkhamb (जैतखाम): a white flag on a pillar |
| Remembered | Guru Ghasidas Jayanti (18 December); Panthi (पंथी) dance of the Satnamis; Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, Bilaspur (a central university since 2009) |
Guru Ghasidas gave the lower castes of the Chhattisgarh plains a faith of their own, free of Brahmin priests and temple exclusion. He is the most important figure of caste reform in the history of Chhattisgarh, and the Satnamis are among the state’s largest Scheduled Caste communities (see Population and Census).
Ramnami Samaj (रामनामी समाज)
- Founded by Parasuram Bharadwaj of Charpara village (Janjgir-Champa) in the 1890s.
- Members tattoo “राम” on the body, wear shawls printed with Ram’s name and recite the Ramcharitmanas, but do not go to temples.
- A protest against being kept out of temples: the body itself became the temple. See Impact of Bhakti and Sufi Movements.
Pandit Sundarlal Sharma (पं. सुंदरलाल शर्मा), 1881–1940
- Born 21 December 1881, Chamsur, near Rajim. Called “Chhattisgarh’s Gandhi” (छत्तीसगढ़ के गांधी).
- Against untouchability: he campaigned for the entry of Dalits into temples and entered the Rajim temple with people of the so-called lower castes.
- Offered the sacred thread (janeu, जनेऊ) to members of the Satnami community, an act of symbolic equality.
- His work preceded Gandhi’s Harijan tour, which reached Chhattisgarh in November 1933. Gandhi is widely reported to have called him his “guru” in this work.
- Also led the Kandel canal satyagraha (1920). See Leaders of the Freedom Movement in Chhattisgarh.
Chhattisgarh angle for Mains
Chhattisgarh shows both approaches to caste reform: assertion from below (Guru Ghasidas’s Satnam Panth, the Ramnami Samaj) and reform from above (Pt. Sundarlal Sharma’s temple entry and janeu campaign, Gandhi’s 1933 tour). One or two lines on these lift any all-India answer on caste reform.
Analysis for Mains: Achievements and Limits
| Achievements | Limits |
|---|---|
| Laws against sati (1829), for widow remarriage (1856) and on the age of marriage (1872, 1891, 1929) | Laws were weakly enforced; widow remarriages remained rare among upper castes |
| Girls’ schools, women’s colleges and a women’s university (1916) | Reform reached mainly urban, upper- and middle-class women |
| Lower-caste movements built self-respect, education and organisation | Upper-caste reformers often saw caste reform as charity rather than rights |
| Temple-entry and water-rights struggles made untouchability a public issue | Caste discrimination continued; full abolition needed the Constitution (Art 17) and later laws |
| Fed directly into the Constitution: Arts 14, 15, 17, 23, 46 | Some reformers relied heavily on the colonial state; others were divided over it |
Memory Tricks
Women's laws: '29–56–72–91–29'
18-29 Sati (Bentinck) → 18-56 Widow Remarriage (Vidyasagar, Canning) → 18-72 Native Marriage (Keshab) → 18-91 Age of Consent (Malabari) → 19-29 Sarda Act.
The first and last both end in 29, a century apart.
Caste reform: 73–03–24–25
1873 Satyashodhak (Phule) → 1903 SNDP (Narayana Guru) → 1924 Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (Ambedkar) and Vaikom begins → 1925 Self-Respect (Periyar).
Chhattisgarh trio: 'Ghasidas, Parasuram, Sundarlal'
Ghasidas (Girodpuri, 1756, Satnam) · Parasuram (Charpara, 1890s, Ramnami) · Sundarlal (Chamsur–Rajim, 1881, temple entry and janeu).
Don’t Confuse
| This | vs | That |
|---|---|---|
| Native Marriage Act 1872 (Brahmo marriages) | vs | Sarda Act 1929 (all British India); both 14/18 |
| Age of Consent Act 1891 (age of consent 10 → 12) | vs | Sarda Act 1929 (minimum age of marriage) |
| Arya Mahila Samaj (Pandita Ramabai, 1882) | vs | Arya Samaj (Dayanand, 1875) |
| Satyashodhak Samaj (Phule, 1873) | vs | Self-Respect Movement (Periyar, 1925) |
| Vaikom (1924–25, roads near the temple) | vs | Guruvayur (1931–32, temple entry, Kelappan) |
| Mahad (1927, Chavdar tank water) | vs | Kalaram (1930, Nashik temple entry) |
| Satnam Panth of Guru Ghasidas (Chhattisgarh) | vs | Satnami revolt of Narnaul (1672, against Aurangzeb) |
Common Mistakes
MCQ traps
- “The Widow Remarriage Act was passed under Lord Dalhousie.” It was enacted in July 1856, in Lord Canning’s term (Dalhousie had left in February–March 1856). Many books link the bill to Dalhousie, so read the option carefully.
- “The Sarda Act fixed the age at 18 for girls.” Wrong. It was 14 for girls and 18 for boys.
- “The Age of Consent Act 1891 raised the age from 12 to 14.” Wrong. It raised it from 10 to 12.
- “Pandita Ramabai founded the Arya Samaj.” Wrong. She founded the Arya Mahila Samaj (1882).
- “Guru Ghasidas was born at Damakheda.” Wrong. He was born at Girodpuri. Damakheda is the Kabirpanth seat.
- “Sundarlal Sharma’s untouchability work began after Gandhi’s 1933 tour.” Wrong. It came before that tour.
Practice
All questions below are original practice questions written in CGPSC style. They are not previous-year questions.
Level 1: Foundation
- The Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act was passed in the year ______.
- Jyotiba Phule founded the Satyashodhak Samaj in ______.
- Guru Ghasidas’s teaching “मनखे-मनखे एक समान” means ______.
Answers
- 1856 (Act XV).
- 1873 (24 September).
- “All human beings are equal.”
Level 2: Prelims MCQs
Q1. Consider the following statements:
- The Age of Consent Act, 1891 raised the age of consent for girls from 10 to 12 years.
- The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929 fixed the minimum age of marriage for girls at 16 years.
- Behramji Malabari campaigned for the Age of Consent Act.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 2 and 3 only
- (c) 3 only
- (d) 1 and 3 only
Answer and explanation
(d) 1 and 3 only. The Sarda Act (1929) fixed 14 years for girls and 18 for boys, so statement 2 is wrong. The 1891 Act raised the age of consent from 10 to 12, and Malabari was among its leading supporters.
Q2. Match List I (Organisation) with List II (Founder):
| List I | List II |
|---|---|
| A. Satyashodhak Samaj | 1. Sree Narayana Guru |
| B. SNDP Yogam | 2. B.R. Ambedkar |
| C. Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha | 3. Jyotiba Phule |
| D. Arya Mahila Samaj | 4. Pandita Ramabai |
- (a) A-3, B-2, C-1, D-4
- (b) A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4
- (c) A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2
- (d) A-3, B-1, C-2, D-4
Answer and explanation
(d) A-3, B-1, C-2, D-4. Phule: Satyashodhak Samaj (1873). Narayana Guru: SNDP Yogam (1903). Ambedkar: Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (1924). Pandita Ramabai: Arya Mahila Samaj (1882).
Q3. With reference to Guru Ghasidas, which of the following is not correct?
- (a) He was born at Girodpuri.
- (b) He founded the Satnam Panth.
- (c) He encouraged idol worship as a path to equality.
- (d) His birth anniversary is celebrated on 18 December.
Answer and explanation
(c). Guru Ghasidas rejected idol worship, along with caste discrimination, animal sacrifice, meat and liquor. He taught devotion to “Satnam”. The other three statements are correct.
Q4. The Vaikom Satyagraha (1924–25) was launched to secure:
- (a) the right of women to inherit property
- (b) the right of lower castes to use the roads around a temple
- (c) the right to draw water from a public tank
- (d) separate electorates for the depressed classes
Answer and explanation
(b). The Vaikom Satyagraha in Travancore demanded that lower castes be allowed to use the roads near the Vaikom temple. Option (c) describes Ambedkar’s Mahad Satyagraha (1927).
Q5. Which reformer from Chhattisgarh entered the Rajim temple with members of the so-called lower castes and offered the sacred thread to Satnamis?
- (a) Thakur Pyarelal Singh
- (b) Pt. Ravishankar Shukla
- (c) Pt. Sundarlal Sharma
- (d) Dr. Khubchand Baghel
Answer and explanation
(c) Pt. Sundarlal Sharma, called “Chhattisgarh’s Gandhi”. His campaign against untouchability came before Gandhi’s 1933 Harijan tour of the region.
Level 3: Mains Answer Writing
Q1. (150–200 words) Evaluate the contribution of 19th- and early 20th-century reform movements to the emancipation of women in India.
Model answer outline
- Intro: Reformers saw the status of women as the measure of a society’s progress.
- Body:
- Legislation: sati banned (1829, Rammohan, Bentinck); widow remarriage legalised (1856, Vidyasagar); age of marriage raised (1872, 1891, 1929 Sarda Act).
- Education: Bethune School (1849); Phules’ girls’ school (1848); Karve’s women’s university (1916).
- Women as reformers: Savitribai Phule, Pandita Ramabai (Arya Mahila Samaj, Sharada Sadan), Tarabai Shinde, Begum Rokeya.
- Organisation: Bharat Stree Mahamandal (1910), WIA (1917), AIWC (1927).
- Limits: urban, upper-caste focus; weak enforcement; reform framed by men in the early phase.
- Chhattisgarh angle: Guru Ghasidas’s message of equality and the Satnam Panth’s rejection of social hierarchy also shaped local attitudes.
- Conclusion: These movements laid the groundwork for equality in the Constitution (Arts 14, 15) and later laws.
Q2. (60 words) Write a short note on the contribution of Guru Ghasidas to social reform in Chhattisgarh.
Model answer outline
- Born 18 December 1756 at Girodpuri; founded the Satnam Panth.
- Preached “Satnam” and “मनखे-मनखे एक समान”; rejected idol worship, caste discrimination, animal sacrifice and liquor.
- Gave lower castes a dignified, priest-free faith; symbol the jaitkhamb.
- Legacy: Satnami community, Panthi dance, Guru Ghasidas Jayanti, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya.
Quick Revision Table
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Sati ban | 1829, Regulation XVII, Bentinck |
| Widow Remarriage Act | 1856 (Act XV), Vidyasagar |
| Native Marriage Act | 1872; 14/18 |
| Age of Consent Act | 1891; 10 → 12; Malabari |
| Sarda Act | 1929; girls 14, boys 18; in force 1 April 1930 |
| Bethune School | 1849, Calcutta |
| Phules’ girls’ school | 1848, Pune |
| Pandita Ramabai | Arya Mahila Samaj 1882; Sharada Sadan 1889 |
| D.K. Karve | Widows’ Home 1896; women’s university 1916 (SNDT) |
| Veeresalingam | Rajahmundry Social Reform Association 1878; first widow remarriage 11 Dec 1881 |
| Satyashodhak Samaj | 24 September 1873, Phule; Gulamgiri |
| SNDP Yogam | 1903, Narayana Guru; Aruvippuram 1888 |
| Vaikom Satyagraha | 1924–25 |
| Self-Respect Movement | 1925, Periyar |
| Ambedkar | Mook Nayak 1920; Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha 1924; Mahad 1927; Kalaram 1930 |
| Harijan Sevak Sangh | 1932, Gandhi |
| Guru Ghasidas | 18 Dec 1756, Girodpuri; Satnam Panth; “मनखे-मनखे एक समान” |
| Ramnami Samaj | Parasuram Bharadwaj, Charpara, 1890s |
| Pt. Sundarlal Sharma | Rajim temple entry; janeu to Satnamis; “Chhattisgarh’s Gandhi” |
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
- Women’s reform produced a chain of laws: 1829, 1856, 1872, 1891, 1929. Enforcement lagged far behind.
- Women such as Savitribai Phule, Pandita Ramabai and Tarabai Shinde became reformers in their own right.
- Caste reform ran on two tracks: reform from above (Brahmo, Arya Samaj, Gandhi) and assertion from below (Phule, Narayana Guru, Periyar, Ambedkar).
- Chhattisgarh had its own reformers: Guru Ghasidas (Satnam Panth), the Ramnami Samaj, and Pt. Sundarlal Sharma (temple entry, janeu).
- These movements fed into the Constitution: Art 17 (untouchability), Art 15 (non-discrimination) and reservation.
What’s Next
- Socio-Religious Reform Movements — Quick Revision
- Gandhian Era: the Harijan campaign, the Poona Pact and mass politics
- Social Legislation and Human Rights: the PCR Act, SC/ST Act and laws on child marriage today
- Freedom Movement in Chhattisgarh: Sundarlal Sharma and Gandhi’s 1933 visit
- Social Aspects of Chhattisgarh: the Satnami community and social change in the state
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