History
The Vedic Age
The Later Vedic Period
Later Vedic age (c. 1000–600 BCE) for CGPSC: eastward shift, iron and PGW, Kuru-Panchala, Rajasuya and Ashvamedha, ratnins, rigid varna, gotra, ashramas.
Prerequisites
- Rig Vedic Society and Polity — this page is built as a comparison with the early phase, so read that first.
- Vedic Literature — the later Samhitas, Brahmanas and Upanishads are the sources for this period.
The Hook: A River That Fire Would Not Cross
Connect
Chhattisgarh’s ancient name is Dakshin Kosala (दक्षिण कोसल), “southern Kosala”. But where does the name Kosala first enter Indian texts?
A story in the Shatapatha Brahmana (शतपथ ब्राह्मण) tells of King Videgha Mathava, who followed the sacred fire Agni Vaishvanara as it burned its way eastward across the land. The fire stopped at the river Sadanira (सदानीरा) — usually identified with the Gandak — and Mathava settled east of it. The text adds that “even now this river forms the boundary of the Kosalas and Videhas”.
This legend is a memory of the eastward spread of Vedic culture, from Punjab into the Ganga plain, clearing forests with fire and later with iron. What drove that shift, and how did it turn tribes into kingdoms?
Why it matters: Prelims asks about the later Vedic sacrifices, the ratnins, iron and Painted Grey Ware, and the changes in varna and the status of women. Mains GS-I asks for a comparison of the two Vedic phases.
Time, Place and Evidence
| Point | Detail |
|---|---|
| Period | c. 1000–600 BCE (approximate, textbook dating) |
| Sources | Later Samhitas (Sama, Yajur, Atharva), Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads |
| Archaeology | Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture of the western Ganga plain, conventionally dated c. 1200–600 BCE. Sites: Hastinapur, Atranjikhera, Ahichchhatra and others. Iron objects occur with PGW |
| Core region | The Ganga–Yamuna doab (the Kuru–Panchala country); spreading to Kosala, Kashi and Videha in the east |
| The south | Vindhyas and beyond were outside the core; peoples there appear in late Vedic texts only at the margins |
Iron: the “black metal”
- Iron is called shyama ayas (श्याम अयस्) or krishna ayas (कृष्ण अयस्), “black / dark metal”. The Atharvaveda is generally cited as the first Vedic text to mention it.
- Iron weapons (arrowheads, spearheads) become common in western Uttar Pradesh from about 800 BCE. Iron axes and ploughshares helped clear the Ganga plain’s forests and extend farming, though how quickly iron transformed agriculture is debated.
Polity: From Tribe to Territorial Kingdom
| Feature | Later Vedic position |
|---|---|
| Unit | Janapada (जनपद) — the tribe (jana) settling on a territory (pada). The word rashtra (राष्ट्र), territory, gains importance |
| Major kingdoms | Kuru (capital Hastinapur; earlier Asandivat) and Panchala in the doab; Kosala, Kashi, Videha to the east |
| King’s power | Grew sharply. Kingship became largely hereditary; the king performed grand sacrifices to claim supremacy. Titles such as samrat, ekarat, adhiraja appear |
| Assemblies | Sabha and samiti continued but declined; the vidatha disappeared. Women were no longer admitted to the sabha |
| Revenue | Bali turned into a regular, compulsory tribute. Vaishyas were the main tax payers. Officer: bhagadugha (collector of the king’s share) |
| Army | Still no standing army in the full sense; tribal levies were mobilised in war |
| Justice | The king became the judge; punishments were harsher |
Royal sacrifices
| Sacrifice | Purpose |
|---|---|
| Rajasuya (राजसूय) | Royal consecration; believed to confer supreme power on the king. The ratnins received offerings (ratnahavis) during it |
| Ashvamedha (अश्वमेध) | Horse sacrifice: a horse wandered freely for a year; lands it crossed unopposed came under the king’s sway. Claimed unquestioned control over territory |
| Vajapeya (वाजपेय) | Included a chariot race in which the king was made to win against his kinsmen; meant to restore and raise his vigour and status |
The ratnins (रत्निन्), “jewels” of the king
A group of royal officers and intimates, important enough that the king made offerings at their houses during the Rajasuya. The Shatapatha Brahmana lists eleven; other texts give slightly different lists.
| Ratnin | Role |
|---|---|
| Purohita | Chief priest |
| Senani | Commander of the army |
| Mahishi | Chief queen |
| Suta | Charioteer and court bard |
| Gramani | Village headman |
| Kshatri | Chamberlain |
| Sangrahitri (संग्रहीतृ) | Treasurer |
| Bhagadugha (भागदुघ) | Collector of taxes (the king’s share) |
| Akshavapa | Keeper of dice / accountant |
| Govikartana | Keeper of games and forests (huntsman) |
| Palagala | Messenger / courier |
Society
| Aspect | Later Vedic change |
|---|---|
| Varna | Hardened into four hereditary varnas: brahmana, kshatriya, vaishya, shudra. The first three were dvija (द्विज), “twice-born”, entitled to upanayana (sacred thread). Shudras were excluded from upanayana and from Vedic recitation |
| Priests vs warriors | Brahmanas and kshatriyas competed for status; texts show both claims. Kshatriya kings such as Janaka of Videha feature in Upanishadic debates |
| Vaishyas | Farmers, herders and traders; the main tax payers; began forming guilds (gana) towards the end of the period |
| Gotra | Gotra (गोत्र) appears: originally “cow-pen”, later a lineage descended from a common ancestor. Gotra exogamy (no marriage within the same gotra) developed |
| Ashramas | The stages of life take shape: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha, and later sannyasa. The Chandogya Upanishad speaks of three; all four are set out clearly in the Jabala Upanishad |
| Women | Status declined. Excluded from the sabha; daughters described as a source of sorrow in the Aitareya Brahmana. Yet some women philosophers stand out: Gargi Vachaknavi and Maitreyi in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad |
| Marriage | Child marriage was still not the norm; forms of marriage began to be classified later in the Dharmasutras |
Economy
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Main occupation | Agriculture replaced pastoralism as the mainstay |
| Crops | Vrihi (व्रीहि), rice, appears with the move east; godhuma (गोधूम), wheat; barley, lentils, sesame. Large ploughs drawn by many oxen are described in texts |
| Iron | Shyama / krishna ayas for weapons and, increasingly, tools |
| Crafts | Many specialised crafts: smiths, smelters, weavers, potters, jewellers, chariot-makers |
| Pottery | Painted Grey Ware (fine, prestige ware); also Black-and-Red Ware and others |
| Trade and money | Still largely barter. Units of value: nishka, shatamana, krishnala, but no coins yet |
| Settlements | Permanent villages; the beginnings of towns at the very end of the period. True cities appear with the Mahajanapadas (6th century BCE) |
Religion
| Feature | Later Vedic position |
|---|---|
| Gods | Indra and Agni lost their primacy. Prajapati (प्रजापति), the creator, became supreme. Rudra and Vishnu rose in importance. Pushan was associated with the shudras in some accounts |
| Ritual | Elaborate, costly sacrifices dominated, with many priests and large gifts (dakshina) of cattle, gold and land. The priestly class gained power and wealth |
| Reaction | The Upanishads turned from ritual to knowledge: atman, brahman, karma, samsara, moksha. This reaction, together with the burden of sacrifices on farmers, prepared the ground for Jainism and Buddhism in the 6th century BCE |
Rig Vedic vs Later Vedic: the comparison table
| Aspect | Rig Vedic (c. 1500–1000 BCE) | Later Vedic (c. 1000–600 BCE) |
|---|---|---|
| Region | Sapta Sindhu (Punjab, Afghanistan) | Ganga–Yamuna doab and eastward to Videha |
| Economy | Pastoral; cattle = wealth | Agricultural; land and grain gain importance |
| Metal | Copper / bronze (ayas) | Iron (shyama / krishna ayas) |
| Crops | Barley (yava) | Rice (vrihi), wheat (godhuma), barley |
| Polity | Tribal chief (rajan); jana | Territorial king; janapada, rashtra |
| Assemblies | Sabha, samiti, vidatha active | Sabha, samiti decline; vidatha gone |
| Revenue | Voluntary bali | Compulsory bali; bhagadugha |
| Society | Fluid; varna only in Purusha Sukta | Rigid hereditary varnas; gotra; ashramas |
| Women | Attended assemblies; composed hymns | Excluded from sabha; status declined |
| Gods | Indra, Agni, Varuna | Prajapati, Vishnu, Rudra |
| Worship | Prayer and simple sacrifice | Elaborate sacrifices; Upanishadic reaction |
| Pottery | (No clear link) | Painted Grey Ware |
Analysis for Mains: Why Did Society Change?
- Ecology and technology: moving into the forested, fertile Ganga plain, aided by fire and later iron, made settled agriculture possible and productive.
- Surplus created hierarchy: a farming surplus could be taxed (compulsory bali), supporting kings, priests and specialists, and widening the gap between the vish and the rulers.
- Territory replaced kinship: settled villages tied people to land, turning the jana into the janapada and preparing the way for the Mahajanapadas.
- Ritual legitimised power: the Rajasuya, Ashvamedha and Vajapeya made the king appear divinely sanctioned, while enriching the priests.
- Counter-currents: the Upanishads’ inward turn and the later rise of Buddhism and Jainism show that ritual-heavy, varna-bound religion did not go unquestioned.
Chhattisgarh angle for Mains
The Kosala of the later Vedic texts lay in the Ganga plain (present-day eastern Uttar Pradesh), with the Sadanira (Gandak) as its eastern boundary with Videha. Chhattisgarh’s ancient name Dakshin Kosala means “southern Kosala”, distinguishing it from this northern kingdom. The region itself was outside the later Vedic core; its own history becomes visible from Mauryan times onwards. See Ancient Chhattisgarh and Dakshin Kosala in Literature and Epics.
Memory Tricks
Royal sacrifices: 'RAV'
Rajasuya = Rule (consecration) · Ashvamedha = Area (horse claims territory) · Vajapeya = Velocity (chariot race).
Money officers: 'Sangrahitri Saves, Bhagadugha Grabs'
Sangrahitri = treasurer (saves). Bhagadugha = tax collector, literally the one who “milks the share” (bhaga + dugha).
The shift in one line
“From cows to crops, from tribe to territory, from Indra to Prajapati, from bronze to iron.”
Don’t Confuse
| This | vs | That |
|---|---|---|
| Sangrahitri = treasurer | vs | Bhagadugha = tax collector |
| Vidatha — disappears in the later Vedic period | vs | Sabha / samiti — continue but weaken |
| Yava = barley (Rig Vedic) | vs | Vrihi = rice (later Vedic) |
| Painted Grey Ware = later Vedic, western Ganga plain | vs | Northern Black Polished Ware = later, linked with the Mahajanapadas and Mauryas |
| Kosala of the Brahmanas = Ganga plain, northern | vs | Dakshin Kosala = Chhattisgarh region, much later name |
| Janaka of Videha = Upanishadic king | vs | Videgha Mathava = legendary founder figure who carried Agni east |
Common Mistakes
MCQ traps
- “The vidatha remained the most important assembly in the later Vedic period.” False. It disappeared; sabha and samiti continued but declined.
- “Coins were used in the later Vedic period.” False. Nishka, shatamana and krishnala were units of value, not coins.
- “Painted Grey Ware is a Rig Vedic pottery.” False. PGW is associated with the later Vedic western Ganga plain.
- “Shudras were entitled to upanayana.” False. Only the three dvija varnas were.
- “Women’s status improved in the later Vedic age.” False as a general statement; it declined, though exceptional women scholars such as Gargi and Maitreyi appear.
- “The Ashvamedha involved a chariot race.” No — that is the Vajapeya. The Ashvamedha involved the year-long wandering of a horse.
Practice
All questions below are original practice questions written in CGPSC style. They are not previous-year questions.
Level 1: Foundation
- In later Vedic texts, iron is called ______ or ______.
- The royal officer responsible for collecting the king’s share of produce was the ______.
- Name the pottery tradition associated with the later Vedic western Ganga plain.
Answers
- Shyama ayas or krishna ayas.
- Bhagadugha.
- Painted Grey Ware (PGW).
Level 2: Prelims MCQs
Q1. Consider the following statements about the later Vedic period:
- Prajapati came to occupy the supreme position among the gods.
- Women continued to attend meetings of the sabha.
- Gotra exogamy began to develop.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 2 and 3 only
- (c) 1 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer and explanation
(c) 1 and 3 only. Prajapati, the creator, became supreme, overshadowing Indra and Agni. The gotra system and gotra exogamy developed in this period. Statement 2 is wrong: women were excluded from the sabha in the later Vedic period, whereas they had attended it in the Rig Vedic phase.
Q2. Match List I (Ratnin) with List II (Function):
| List I | List II |
|---|---|
| A. Sangrahitri | 1. Charioteer and bard |
| B. Bhagadugha | 2. Messenger |
| C. Suta | 3. Treasurer |
| D. Palagala | 4. Collector of taxes |
- (a) A-4, B-3, C-1, D-2
- (b) A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2
- (c) A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1
- (d) A-1, B-4, C-3, D-2
Answer and explanation
(b) A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2. Sangrahitri was the treasurer and bhagadugha the collector of the king’s share. The suta was the charioteer and court bard, and the palagala a messenger or courier. Option (a) swaps the two money officers — the classic trap.
Q3. Which of the following later Vedic sacrifices included a chariot race that the king was made to win?
- (a) Rajasuya
- (b) Ashvamedha
- (c) Agnihotra
- (d) Vajapeya
Answer and explanation
(d) Vajapeya. The Rajasuya was the consecration ceremony, during which offerings were made to the ratnins. The Ashvamedha was the horse sacrifice for claiming territory. The Agnihotra was a simple daily fire offering made by householders.
Q4. According to the Shatapatha Brahmana, the river Sadanira formed the boundary between which two peoples?
- (a) Kuru and Panchala
- (b) Kosala and Videha
- (c) Kashi and Magadha
- (d) Bharata and Puru
Answer and explanation
(b) Kosala and Videha. In the Videgha Mathava legend, Agni Vaishvanara burns eastward but does not cross the Sadanira (usually identified with the Gandak), and the text says the river is the boundary of the Kosalas and Videhas. The legend is read as a memory of the eastward spread of Vedic culture.
Level 3: Mains Answer Writing
Q1. (60 words) Why is the Painted Grey Ware culture important for understanding the later Vedic period?
Model answer outline
- PGW (conventionally c. 1200–600 BCE) is the archaeological culture of the western Ganga plain, the later Vedic heartland.
- Sites such as Hastinapur, Atranjikhera and Ahichchhatra show settled villages, rice, domesticated animals and iron.
- It corroborates the textual picture of agricultural expansion and the Kuru–Panchala centre.
- Caution: linking pottery to a text-defined people is an inference, not proof.
Q2. (150–200 words) Compare the polity and society of the Rig Vedic and later Vedic periods. What explains the change?
Model answer outline
- Intro: Two phases, c. 1500–1000 BCE and c. 1000–600 BCE, known from different layers of Vedic literature.
- Polity: tribal chief → territorial king (janapada, rashtra); voluntary → compulsory bali; vidatha disappears, sabha and samiti weaken; Rajasuya, Ashvamedha, Vajapeya; ratnins as an embryonic administration.
- Society: fluid occupations → rigid hereditary varna; dvija vs shudra; gotra; ashramas; women excluded from the sabha.
- Economy and religion: pastoral → agricultural; bronze → iron; Indra → Prajapati; simple → elaborate sacrifice.
- Explanation: eastward move into the Ganga plain; iron and agricultural surplus; settlement tied people to land; priestly ritual legitimised royal power.
- Chhattisgarh angle: the Kosala named in the Brahmanas is the northern kingdom; “Dakshin Kosala” for Chhattisgarh is a later extension of the name southward.
- Conclusion: the later Vedic period laid the foundations of the Mahajanapadas and of the varna order, and also provoked the Upanishadic and heterodox reactions.
Quick Revision Table
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Period | c. 1000–600 BCE (approximate) |
| Region | Ganga–Yamuna doab → Kosala, Kashi, Videha |
| Pottery | Painted Grey Ware (c. 1200–600 BCE) |
| Iron | Shyama / krishna ayas; first in the Atharvaveda |
| Kingdoms | Kuru (Hastinapur), Panchala; Kosala, Kashi, Videha |
| Polity | Janapada, rashtra; hereditary king; samrat, ekarat |
| Assemblies | Sabha and samiti decline; vidatha gone; women excluded |
| Sacrifices | Rajasuya (consecration), Ashvamedha (horse), Vajapeya (chariot race) |
| Ratnins | Eleven in the Shatapatha Brahmana; sangrahitri = treasurer, bhagadugha = tax collector |
| Varna | Four hereditary varnas; dvija; shudras denied upanayana |
| Gotra | Lineage; gotra exogamy |
| Ashramas | Three in the Chandogya Upanishad; all four clearly in the Jabala Upanishad |
| Women scholars | Gargi, Maitreyi (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad) |
| Crops | Rice (vrihi), wheat (godhuma), barley |
| Gods | Prajapati supreme; Vishnu, Rudra rise |
| Videgha Mathava | Agni stops at the Sadanira (Gandak): Kosala–Videha boundary |
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
- The later Vedic age (c. 1000–600 BCE) saw Vedic culture move east into the Ganga plain, with iron and Painted Grey Ware.
- Agriculture replaced pastoralism; surplus allowed compulsory taxes, bigger kingdoms and powerful priests.
- Kingship grew through the Rajasuya, Ashvamedha and Vajapeya; the ratnins formed an early royal circle; the vidatha vanished.
- Varna hardened, gotra and ashramas took shape, and women lost their public role.
- Prajapati displaced Indra; the costly ritual order provoked the Upanishadic turn to knowledge.
What’s Next
- Vedic Literature — Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads and Vedangas
- The Vedic Age — Quick Revision — the chapter on one page
- Jainism and Buddhism — the 6th-century BCE reaction to Vedic ritualism
- Magadha and the Mauryas — from janapadas to Mahajanapadas and empire
- Indian Philosophy — the Upanishadic ideas in Mains GS-IV
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