History
The Vedic Age
Rig Vedic Society and Polity
Early Vedic period (c. 1500–1000 BCE) for CGPSC: Sapta Sindhu rivers, tribal polity, sabha and samiti, Battle of Ten Kings, society, economy and gods.
Prerequisites
- Indus Valley Civilisation — the urban culture that had declined before the Rig Vedic people appear in the north-west. Knowing its features makes the contrasts (rural vs urban, horse vs no clear horse) easy.
- Vedic Literature — the Rig Veda is the only source for this period. Read that page alongside this one if the names of texts are new to you.
The Hook: Cattle, Sticks and Shields
Connect
Every year after Diwali, the Raut (राउत) cowherd community of Chhattisgarh fills the streets of Bilaspur with Raut Nacha (राउत नाचा): men with sticks and shields, mock combat and loud couplets, celebrating the safety of their cattle. A herder’s wealth is his herd, and a herder’s honour is defending it.
About three thousand years earlier, in the land of seven rivers in the north-west, a people who called themselves Arya (आर्य) lived by exactly this logic. Their word for war was gavishti (गविष्टि), literally “the search for cows”. Their king was gopati (गोपति), “lord of cattle”. How was such a pastoral, tribal society organised, and what did its politics look like before kingdoms and taxes existed?
Why it matters: Prelims draws exact details from this period: the Rig Vedic names of rivers, the assemblies (sabha, samiti, vidatha), the Battle of Ten Kings, the gods with the most hymns. Mains GS-I asks you to compare the early and later Vedic phases.
Who, When, Where
Sources and dating
| Point | Detail |
|---|---|
| Main source | The Rig Veda Samhita (ऋग्वेद संहिता) — the only text for this phase. There is no excavated “Rig Vedic city” |
| Archaeological hints | Cemeteries and pottery of the north-west (e.g. the Gandhara Grave culture in the Swat valley) are often linked with this period, but no site can be tied to the text with certainty |
| Outside evidence | The Boghazkoi (Boğazköy) inscription in Turkey, from a Hittite–Mitanni treaty of the 14th century BCE (c. 1380 BCE), names Indra, Mitra, Varuna and the Nasatyas as divine witnesses. This shows that Indo-Aryan gods were known in West Asia by then |
| Conventional dates | Early (Rig) Vedic: c. 1500–1000 BCE; Later Vedic: c. 1000–600 BCE. These are textbook approximations; the dating of the Rig Veda is debated |
| Language | Vedic Sanskrit, an Indo-European language related to Avestan (old Iranian), Greek, Latin and others |
The 'original home' debate (for context, not for certainty)
Where the Indo-Aryan speakers came from is one of the most debated questions in Indian history. Scholars have proposed Central Asia and the Eurasian steppe (the most widely held view among linguists and geneticists), while older Indian writers suggested other homes: Bal Gangadhar Tilak argued for the Arctic in The Arctic Home in the Vedas, and Dayanand Saraswati for Tibet. Others argue for an indigenous origin. Recent ancient-DNA studies have added evidence but not ended the debate.
For the exam: know the names attached to each theory, present them as views, and never write one as settled fact.
Geography: the land of seven rivers
The Rig Vedic people lived mainly in the Sapta Sindhu (सप्त सिंधु), “land of seven rivers”: eastern Afghanistan, Punjab and the fringes of western Uttar Pradesh.
| Rig Vedic name | Modern name | Note |
|---|---|---|
| Sindhu (सिंधु) | Indus | The river mentioned most often; the people’s main river |
| Sarasvati (सरस्वती) | Often identified with the Ghaggar–Hakra | Praised as naditama (नदीतमा), “best of rivers” |
| Shutudri (शुतुद्री) | Sutlej | |
| Vipas (विपाश) | Beas | |
| Parushni (परुष्णी) | Ravi | Site of the Battle of Ten Kings |
| Asikni (असिक्नी) | Chenab | |
| Vitasta (वितस्ता) | Jhelum | |
| Kubha (कुभा) | Kabul | Western tributary |
| Krumu (क्रुमु) | Kurram | Western tributary |
| Gomati (गोमती) | Gomal | Western tributary — not the Gomti of UP |
| Suvastu (सुवास्तु) | Swat | Western tributary |
| Ganga, Yamuna | Ganga, Yamuna | Mentioned only rarely; the Ganga appears in the river hymn Nadistuti Sukta (RV 10.75). Their rarity shows the Ganga plain was at the edge of the Rig Vedic world |
Polity: Tribes, Not Kingdoms
Rig Vedic polity was tribal. Loyalty was to the jana (जन), the tribe, not to a territory. The word rashtra (territory, realm) becomes important only in the later Vedic period.
Units of society and government
graph LR
A["Kula (कुल)
family
head: Kulapa"] --> B["Grama (ग्राम)
group of families
head: Gramani"]
B --> C["Vish (विश्)
clan
head: Vishpati"]
C --> D["Jana (जन)
tribe
head: Rajan"]The king and his officials
| Office | Role |
|---|---|
| Rajan (राजन्) | Tribal chief; leader in war and protector of the tribe and its cattle (gopati, janasya gopa, “protector of the people”). Not an absolute monarch; he had no regular army or standing bureaucracy. Kingship tended to be hereditary but the assemblies had a say |
| Purohita (पुरोहित) | Priest and adviser. Vasishtha and Vishvamitra are the famous Rig Vedic purohitas |
| Senani (सेनानी) | Leader of the army in war |
| Gramani (ग्रामणी) | Head of the village (originally of a fighting unit) |
| Vrajapati (व्रजपति) | Officer over pasture land; led kula heads in battle |
| Spash (स्पश्) | Spies |
| Duta (दूत) | Envoys / messengers |
- No regular taxes: the people gave bali (बलि), a voluntary offering or gift to the chief, often from booty.
- No standing army: the tribe fought as a militia.
- No formal judicial machinery: disputes over cattle theft were common; the Panis (पणि) appear as cattle-stealing enemies.
The tribal assemblies
| Assembly | Nature | Key points |
|---|---|---|
| Sabha (सभा) | Smaller, select body of elders / nobles | Advisory and judicial functions. Women attended in the Rig Vedic period |
| Samiti (समिति) | General assembly of the people (the tribe) | Could have a role in choosing or approving the king; the king was expected to attend |
| Vidatha (विदथ) | Oldest assembly; mentioned most often in the Rig Veda | Combined religious, military and social functions, including distribution of booty. Women participated |
| Gana (गण) | A group or band, often a tribe under a leader (ganapati) |
Sabha and samiti: 'two daughters of Prajapati'
The Atharvaveda (7.12) describes the sabha and samiti as the two daughters of Prajapati. This is a favourite Prelims question. Note that the source is the Atharvaveda, a later text, not the Rig Veda.
Battle of Ten Kings (दाशराज्ञ युद्ध)
| Point | Detail |
|---|---|
| Source | Rig Veda, Mandala 7 (hymn 7.18 and related hymns) |
| Winner | Sudas (सुदास), king of the Bharata (भरत) tribe of the Tritsu lineage |
| Opponents | A confederacy of ten kings, including the five major tribes (Puru, Yadu, Turvasha, Anu, Druhyu) and some non-Aryan groups |
| Place | Banks of the Parushni (Ravi) |
| Priests | Vasishtha was Sudas’s purohita at the time; Vishvamitra, his earlier priest, is associated with the opposing side in tradition |
| Significance | The Bharatas emerged dominant. Their name later gave the country the name Bharatavarsha (भारतवर्ष) |
Pancha jana (पंच जन), the five tribes: Anu, Druhyu, Yadu, Turvasha, Puru. The Bharatas and Purus later merged into the Kurus of the later Vedic period.
Society
| Aspect | Rig Vedic position |
|---|---|
| Family | Patriarchal; the father (kulapa) headed the kula. Prayers ask mainly for sons and cattle |
| Status of women | Comparatively good. Women attended the sabha and vidatha, received education and composed hymns: Lopamudra, Ghosha, Apala, Vishvavara are the names to remember. Widow remarriage and niyoga (levirate) were practised. No evidence of child marriage or sati |
| Marriage | Generally monogamous, with polygamy among chiefs; marriage took place after childhood, not as child marriage |
| Varna | Society was largely tribal and fluid. The Aryans distinguished themselves from the dasa (दास) and dasyu (दस्यु). Occupations were not hereditary: a hymn says “I am a poet, my father a physician, my mother grinds corn” |
| Four varnas | First named in the Purusha Sukta (RV 10.90), in the tenth Mandala, a late addition. The word shudra occurs here for the first time |
| Slavery | Some domestic slaves, mostly women (dasi), given as gifts; no large-scale slave labour |
| Food and drink | Milk, ghee, barley cakes; meat was eaten. Soma (ritual drink) and sura (intoxicant, disapproved of) |
| Dress | Garments of cotton and wool; ornaments of gold |
| Leisure | Chariot racing, dicing (the “Gambler’s Hymn”, RV 10.34), music and dance |
Economy
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Main occupation | Cattle rearing (pastoralism); agriculture was secondary |
| Wealth | Counted in cattle. The cow is called aghanya (अघन्या), “not to be killed”, in several hymns. War was gavishti (“search for cows”) and the chief was gopati (“lord of cattle”) |
| Agriculture | Known but limited. The main crop was yava (यव), a general word for grain usually taken as barley. Plough: langala / sira |
| The horse | Central to war: horse-drawn spoked-wheel chariots gave military advantage |
| Metals | Ayas (अयस्) = copper or bronze. Iron was not known in the Rig Veda |
| Trade and money | Barter; the cow was the unit of value. Nishka (निष्क) was a gold ornament, also used in exchange. No coins |
| Crafts | Carpenter (takshan), chariot-maker, smith, weaver, potter, leather worker. Crafts were not yet tied to caste |
| Towns | None. The Rig Vedic people were rural; pur (पुर) meant a fort or rampart, often of enemies destroyed by Indra (Purandara, “breaker of forts”) |
Religion
The Rig Vedic people worshipped the forces of nature as gods, mostly male. Worship was through prayer and simple sacrifice (yajna), for material ends: cattle, sons, victory, long life. There were no temples and no idol worship.
| God | Domain | Note |
|---|---|---|
| Indra (इन्द्र) | War, rain, thunder | Most important; about 250 hymns. Called Purandara (fort-breaker); slays Vritra, releasing the waters |
| Agni (अग्नि) | Fire | Second; about 200 hymns. Intermediary between gods and humans (carries offerings) |
| Varuna (वरुण) | Water, cosmic order | Upholder of rita (ऋत), the cosmic and moral order |
| Soma (सोम) | Plant and its drink | The entire ninth Mandala is addressed to Soma Pavamana |
| Mitra, Surya, Savitri | Sun | The Gayatri Mantra is addressed to Savitri |
| Ushas, Aditi, Prithvi | Dawn, mother of gods, earth | Female deities, relatively minor |
| Rudra, Vishnu | Storms; the god of three strides | Minor in the Rig Veda; both rise sharply later |
| Maruts, Ashvins (Nasatyas) | Storm gods; divine physicians | |
| Yama | Death | First mortal to die |
Rita (ऋत) is the key idea for Mains: an impersonal order that governs nature, ritual and morality. It is the forerunner of the later concept of dharma.
Analysis for Mains: What Kind of Society Was This?
- Pastoral and semi-nomadic, not urban. No cities, no script, no coins: the contrast with the Harappan civilisation is sharp.
- Kin-based, relatively egalitarian. Power lay with the tribe; the assemblies limited the chief; bali was voluntary.
- Conflict was mainly over cattle and pasture. Wars were fought between Aryan tribes as well as with non-Aryans, so the “Aryan vs dasa” reading is too simple.
- Seeds of later change are visible. The Purusha Sukta in the latest Mandala already sketches the four varnas; priests and warrior chiefs were gaining over the vish (common people).
- Women had more public roles than in later periods, which makes the period a useful benchmark for Mains questions on the status of women in ancient India.
Chhattisgarh angle for Mains
Chhattisgarh is not part of the Rig Vedic world, which lay in the north-west. The region enters Sanskrit tradition later, as Dakshin Kosala (दक्षिण कोसल) — see Ancient Chhattisgarh. What a Mains answer can use is continuity of pastoral culture: the place of cattle in festivals and dances of the state, such as Raut Nacha (see Folk Arts), echoes the cattle-centred values of the early Vedic economy. Present this as a cultural parallel, not as a historical link.
Memory Tricks
Five tribes: 'ADY TP'
Anu · Druhyu · Yadu · Turvasha · Puru — read it as “All Day You Talk Politics”.
Rivers: think of their 'new' names in order, west to east
Vitasta → Asikni → Parushni → Vipas → Shutudri = Jhelum → Chenab → Ravi → Beas → Sutlej.
Trick: “Very Angry Parrots Visit Shops” = “Just Come Right Back Soon”.
And the battle: “Parushni = Power struggle of ten kings”.
Assemblies: 'Vidatha is the Veteran'
Vidatha = oldest, most mentioned, mixed functions. Sabha = Select elders. Samiti = Sab log (the whole people). Sabha + samiti = Prajapati’s daughters (Atharvaveda).
Don’t Confuse
| This | vs | That |
|---|---|---|
| Ayas in the Rig Veda = copper / bronze | vs | Shyama / krishna ayas in later texts = iron |
| Gomati of the Rig Veda = Gomal (Afghanistan–Pakistan) | vs | Gomti of Uttar Pradesh (Lucknow) |
| Bali = voluntary gift (Rig Vedic) | vs | Bali as a regular, compulsory tribute (later Vedic) |
| Vidatha = oldest, most-mentioned assembly | vs | Samiti = assembly of the whole tribe |
| Purusha Sukta = Mandala 10, hymn 90 (varnas) | vs | Nasadiya Sukta = Mandala 10, hymn 129 (creation) |
| Pur = fort / rampart | vs | Nagara = town (not a Rig Vedic reality) |
Common Mistakes
MCQ traps
- “Iron was widely used in the Rig Vedic period.” False. Iron appears only in later Vedic texts and with the Painted Grey Ware culture.
- “The four varnas are described throughout the Rig Veda.” False. They appear in the Purusha Sukta of the tenth Mandala, a late addition.
- “The Ganga was the most important Rig Vedic river.” False. The Sindhu is mentioned most and the Sarasvati is most praised; the Ganga is barely mentioned.
- “The ’two daughters of Prajapati’ statement comes from the Rig Veda.” False. It is in the Atharvaveda.
- “Rig Vedic people worshipped in temples.” False. No temples, no images: worship was through hymns and fire sacrifice.
- “Women were excluded from assemblies.” That is a later Vedic development; in the Rig Vedic period they attended the sabha and vidatha.
Practice
All questions below are original practice questions written in CGPSC style. They are not previous-year questions.
Level 1: Foundation
- The Rig Vedic name of the river Ravi is ______.
- The voluntary offering given by the people to the Rig Vedic chief was called ______.
- Which god has the largest number of hymns in the Rig Veda?
Answers
- Parushni.
- Bali.
- Indra (about 250 hymns), followed by Agni (about 200).
Level 2: Prelims MCQs
Q1. Consider the following statements about the Rig Vedic period:
- Women could attend the sabha and the vidatha.
- Iron implements were the basis of agricultural expansion.
- The term “gavishti” was used for war.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 1 and 3 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer and explanation
(b) 1 and 3 only. Women attended the sabha and vidatha in the Rig Vedic period. “Gavishti” (“search for cows”) meant war, reflecting the cattle-centred economy. Statement 2 is wrong: iron was unknown in the Rig Veda; it appears in later Vedic texts as shyama or krishna ayas and is linked to the eastward expansion of the later Vedic period.
Q2. Match List I (Rig Vedic name) with List II (Modern name):
| List I | List II |
|---|---|
| A. Vitasta | 1. Chenab |
| B. Asikni | 2. Beas |
| C. Vipas | 3. Jhelum |
| D. Shutudri | 4. Sutlej |
- (a) A-3, B-2, C-1, D-4
- (b) A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4
- (c) A-3, B-1, C-2, D-4
- (d) A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2
Answer and explanation
(c) A-3, B-1, C-2, D-4. Vitasta = Jhelum, Asikni = Chenab, Vipas = Beas, Shutudri = Sutlej. The fifth Punjab river, Parushni (Ravi), is the one linked with the Battle of Ten Kings.
Q3. The Battle of Ten Kings described in the Rig Veda was fought on the banks of which river?
- (a) Sarasvati
- (b) Parushni
- (c) Sindhu
- (d) Yamuna
Answer and explanation
(b) Parushni (Ravi). Sudas, king of the Bharatas, defeated a confederacy of ten kings there, with Vasishtha as his priest. The account is in Mandala 7. Options (a) and (c) are tempting because the Sarasvati and Sindhu are the most celebrated Rig Vedic rivers.
Q4. Which one of the following statements about Rig Vedic religion is not correct?
- (a) Varuna was regarded as the upholder of rita, the cosmic order.
- (b) The entire ninth Mandala is devoted to Soma.
- (c) Agni was regarded as the intermediary between gods and humans.
- (d) Rudra and Vishnu were the most prominent gods of the Rig Veda.
Answer and explanation
(d). Rudra and Vishnu are minor gods in the Rig Veda; they become prominent only in the later Vedic period. The most prominent Rig Vedic gods are Indra and Agni. Statements (a), (b) and (c) are correct.
Q5. In the Rig Vedic polity, the officer called vrajapati was in charge of:
- (a) collection of taxes
- (b) pasture land
- (c) the royal treasury
- (d) espionage
Answer and explanation
(b) Pasture land. The vrajapati had authority over pasture (vraja) and led the heads of families in war. There was no regular tax collection or treasury in the Rig Vedic polity; spies were called spash.
Level 3: Mains Answer Writing
Q1. (60 words) What were the sabha, samiti and vidatha?
Model answer outline
- Sabha: smaller body of elders with advisory and judicial roles; women attended in the Rig Vedic period.
- Samiti: general assembly of the tribe; could approve or choose the chief.
- Vidatha: oldest and most frequently mentioned assembly, with religious, military and distributive (booty) functions.
- One line: together they show that the Rig Vedic chief was not absolute. The Atharvaveda calls sabha and samiti the two daughters of Prajapati.
Q2. (150–200 words) “The Rig Vedic polity was tribal and pastoral rather than territorial and monarchical.” Discuss.
Model answer outline
- Intro: Our knowledge of c. 1500–1000 BCE comes from the Rig Veda; it shows a society of tribes (jana) in the Sapta Sindhu region.
- Body:
- Tribal units: kula → grama → vish → jana; loyalty to kin, not territory; “rashtra” is not yet central.
- Chief, not king: rajan as gopati / janasya gopa; leader in cattle raids (gavishti); no standing army or bureaucracy.
- Assemblies checked power: sabha, samiti, vidatha, gana; women’s participation.
- No regular revenue: bali was voluntary; wealth was cattle; no coins or towns.
- Wars were tribal: Battle of Ten Kings on the Parushni; Bharatas prevail.
- Counterpoint: hereditary chiefship, the purohita’s rising influence and the Purusha Sukta show the seeds of the later state and varna order.
- Conclusion: The Rig Vedic polity was a kin-based chiefdom; the shift to territorial kingdoms came with agriculture and iron in the later Vedic period.
Quick Revision Table
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Period | Early (Rig) Vedic, c. 1500–1000 BCE (approximate) |
| Region | Sapta Sindhu: Afghanistan, Punjab, fringes of western UP |
| Most mentioned river | Sindhu (Indus) |
| “Best of rivers” | Sarasvati (naditama) |
| Battle of Ten Kings | Sudas (Bharata) wins on the Parushni (Ravi); Mandala 7; Vasishtha |
| Five tribes | Anu, Druhyu, Yadu, Turvasha, Puru |
| Units | kula, grama, vish, jana |
| Assemblies | Sabha, samiti, vidatha (oldest), gana |
| “Daughters of Prajapati” | Sabha and samiti — Atharvaveda 7.12 |
| Revenue | Bali (voluntary) |
| Officials | Purohita, senani, gramani, vrajapati, spash, duta |
| Economy | Pastoral; cattle = wealth; barley (yava); no iron; no coins; nishka ornament |
| War word | Gavishti (“search for cows”) |
| Women composers | Lopamudra, Ghosha, Apala, Vishvavara |
| Four varnas first | Purusha Sukta (RV 10.90) |
| Top gods | Indra (~250 hymns), Agni (~200), Varuna (rita), Soma (Mandala 9) |
| Outside evidence | Boghazkoi inscription, 14th century BCE |
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
- The Rig Vedic age (c. 1500–1000 BCE) was pastoral, rural and tribal, centred on the Sapta Sindhu.
- The rajan was a tribal chief checked by the sabha, samiti and vidatha; revenue was the voluntary bali.
- Cattle were wealth and war was gavishti; iron, coins and towns were absent.
- Women had a visible public role; the four varnas appear only in the late Purusha Sukta.
- Indra and Agni dominate the hymns; Varuna guards rita, the forerunner of dharma.
What’s Next
- The Later Vedic Period — iron, agriculture, kingdoms and rigid varna
- Vedic Literature — the texts behind all these facts
- The Vedic Age — Quick Revision — the chapter on one page
- Jainism and Buddhism — the reaction against Vedic ritualism
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