Polity
Constitutional Development (1773–1950)
Crown Rule II: 1919 to Independence (1947)
Government of India Acts 1919 and 1935, Simon Commission, Communal Award, Cripps, Cabinet Mission and the Indian Independence Act 1947 for CGPSC.
Prerequisites
- Crown Rule I: Acts of 1858 to 1909: the councils, the separate electorate and the “representative but not responsible” problem this page solves step by step.
- Gandhian Era: the mass movements (Non-Cooperation, Civil Disobedience, Quit India) that pushed each reform.
The Hook: Nagpur, 1937 and 1946
Connect
In 1937, for the first time, an Indian ministry answerable to an elected assembly took office in Nagpur, the capital of the Central Provinces and Berar (मध्य प्रांत और बरार), the province that then included the Chhattisgarh districts of Raipur, Bilaspur and Durg. Its first Premier was N.B. Khare. In April 1946, Pandit Ravishankar Shukla (पंडित रविशंकर शुक्ल) of Raipur became Premier of the same province, and the same year he was elected to the Constituent Assembly.
What changed between 1919 and 1947 that allowed Indians to run a province, and then a whole country? Two big Acts (1919 and 1935), a string of commissions and plans, and finally the Indian Independence Act.
Why it matters: The Government of India Act, 1935 is the single biggest source of our Constitution, so Prelims asks its provisions almost every year. Mains asks about dyarchy, provincial autonomy and how much of 1935 survives in 1950.
Timeline 1917–1947
timeline
title From Dyarchy to Independence
1917 : Montagu's August Declaration
1919 : Government of India Act (in force 1921)
1927 : Simon Commission appointed
1928 : Nehru Report
1930-32 : Three Round Table Conferences
1932 : Communal Award and Poona Pact
1935 : Government of India Act
1937 : Provincial autonomy - elected ministries
1940 : August Offer
1942 : Cripps Mission
1946 : Cabinet Mission - Constituent Assembly elected
1947 : Mountbatten Plan (3 June) and Indian Independence Act (18 July)Government of India Act, 1919: The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms
Background: On 20 August 1917, the Secretary of State Edwin Montagu declared that British policy aimed at the gradual introduction of responsible government in India. The Act followed, named after Montagu and the Viceroy Lord Chelmsford. It was enacted in 1919 and came into force in 1921.
| Provision | Detail |
|---|---|
| Subjects divided | Central and provincial subjects were demarcated (separated). Provinces could legislate on provincial subjects, but the structure stayed centralised and unitary |
| Dyarchy (द्वैध शासन) in provinces | Provincial subjects were split into transferred subjects (run by the Governor with ministers responsible to the legislative council) and reserved subjects (run by the Governor with his executive council, not responsible to the legislature) |
| Bicameral centre | The central legislature became bicameral: the Legislative Assembly (lower house) and the Council of State (upper house). The majority of members of both were directly elected |
| Indians in the executive | Three of the six members of the Viceroy’s Executive Council (other than the Commander-in-Chief) were to be Indians |
| Communal representation extended | Separate electorates were extended to Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians and Europeans |
| Franchise | Given to a limited number of people on the basis of property, tax or education |
| High Commissioner | A new office of High Commissioner for India in London, taking over some functions of the Secretary of State |
| Public Service Commission | Provided for a Public Service Commission. The Central Public Service Commission was set up in 1926 |
| Provincial budgets | Separated provincial budgets from the central budget; provinces could enact their own budgets |
| Review | A statutory commission to report on the working of the Act after 10 years (this became the Simon Commission) |
Why dyarchy failed
A minister held, say, education, but finance was a reserved subject under an executive councillor. Ministers had responsibility without money or control over officials, and the Governor could overrule them. Dyarchy is generally judged to have been largely unsuccessful, and the 1935 Act abolished it in the provinces.
Commissions, Conferences and the Communal Award (1927–1932)
| Event | Key facts |
|---|---|
| Simon Commission (appointed November 1927) | A statutory commission of seven British members under Sir John Simon, appointed two years early. No Indian member, so all parties boycotted it (“Simon, Go Back”). Its report (1930) recommended abolishing dyarchy, extending responsible government in the provinces, a federation of British India and the princely states, and continuing communal electorates |
| Nehru Report (1928) | Drafted by a committee under Motilal Nehru, it was Indians’ own outline constitution, with a list of Fundamental Rights and dominion status |
| Round Table Conferences (1930, 1931, 1932) | Held in London to discuss reforms. Gandhi attended only the second (1931) for the Congress |
| Communal Award (August 1932) | Announced by British PM Ramsay MacDonald. It extended separate electorates to the depressed classes (Scheduled Castes) as well |
| Poona Pact (September 1932) | After Gandhi’s fast in Yerawada jail, Gandhi and B.R. Ambedkar agreed: the depressed classes would stay in the joint (general) Hindu electorate, with reserved seats (more seats than the Award had given) |
The White Paper (1933) and a Joint Select Committee of Parliament then produced the 1935 Act.
Government of India Act, 1935: The Blueprint
A long and detailed Act of 321 sections and 10 schedules, it is the largest single source of the Constitution of India: the federal scheme, the Governor’s office, the Federal Court, Public Service Commissions, emergency provisions and administrative details all come from it.
| Provision | Detail |
|---|---|
| All-India Federation | Proposed a federation of provinces and princely states as units. It never came into being because the princely states did not join |
| Three lists | Powers divided between centre and units: Federal List (59 items), Provincial List (54 items), Concurrent List (36 items). Residuary powers were given to the Viceroy |
| Provincial autonomy | Abolished dyarchy in the provinces. Provinces acted as autonomous units in their own sphere, with the Governor acting on the advice of ministers responsible to the provincial legislature. It came into effect in 1937 |
| Dyarchy at the centre | Federal subjects were split into reserved and transferred. This provision never came into operation |
| Bicameralism in provinces | Introduced in six of the eleven provinces: Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Bihar, Assam and the United Provinces |
| Communal and special representation | Separate electorates continued and were widened (for example, to women and labour in some seats); the depressed classes got reserved seats in the general electorate, as agreed in the Poona Pact |
| Council of India abolished | The Secretary of State got a team of advisers instead |
| Franchise | Extended to about 10 per cent of the population |
| Public Service Commissions | A Federal PSC, Provincial PSCs and Joint PSCs for two or more provinces |
| Federal Court | Provided for a Federal Court, set up in 1937 |
| New provinces | Sind and Orissa became separate provinces (1936); Burma was separated from India (1937) |
What 1950 took from 1935
Federal scheme and three lists; office of Governor; emergency provisions; Public Service Commissions; Federal Court (now Supreme Court); the bulk of the administrative details. Our Seventh Schedule’s Union, State and Concurrent Lists are the direct descendants of the 1935 lists, but in 1950 residuary powers went to the Union (Parliament, Art 248), not to the head of state. See Centre–State Relations.
Chhattisgarh angle: Under the 1935 Act, the Central Provinces and Berar was a Governor’s province with a single-chamber legislature. In the 1937 elections the Congress won, and a ministry under N.B. Khare took office. The ministries resigned in 1939 over India being dragged into the Second World War without consultation, and responsible government returned in 1946, when Ravishankar Shukla became Premier (27 April 1946).
The Road to Transfer of Power (1940–1947)
| Event | Key facts |
|---|---|
| August Offer (1940) | Viceroy Linlithgow accepted that framing a new constitution was primarily Indians’ own responsibility, a first acceptance of the Constituent Assembly idea. Congress rejected the rest of the offer |
| Cripps Mission (March 1942) | Sir Stafford Cripps offered dominion status and an elected constituent assembly after the war, with the right of provinces to stay out. Rejected by the Congress and the Muslim League. Gandhi is said to have called it a “post-dated cheque” |
| Cabinet Mission (1946) | Three Cabinet ministers: Pethick-Lawrence, Stafford Cripps, A.V. Alexander. Its plan (16 May 1946) rejected a separate Pakistan, proposed a weak Union with provinces grouped into sections, and laid down how the Constituent Assembly would be elected (see the next page) |
| Interim Government | Took office on 2 September 1946, with Nehru as Vice-President of the Viceroy’s Executive Council |
| Attlee’s statement (20 February 1947) | The British would leave India by June 1948 |
| Mountbatten Plan (3 June 1947) | Partition into India and Pakistan; the date of transfer was brought forward to 15 August 1947 |
Indian Independence Act, 1947
Passed by the British Parliament and given royal assent on 18 July 1947.
| Provision | Detail |
|---|---|
| End of British rule | Declared India independent and sovereign from 15 August 1947 |
| Two dominions | Partitioned India into the dominions of India and Pakistan, each free to leave the British Commonwealth |
| Viceroy abolished | Each dominion got a Governor-General, appointed by the British King on the advice of the dominion cabinet. The British Government ceased to be responsible for either dominion |
| Constituent Assembly made sovereign | The Constituent Assembly of each dominion could frame and adopt any constitution and repeal any Act of the British Parliament, including this Act itself |
| Dual role | The Constituent Assembly also became the legislature (Dominion Legislature) until the new constitution came into force |
| Secretary of State abolished | His functions ended |
| Paramountcy lapsed | British paramountcy over the princely states lapsed from 15 August 1947. The states were free to join India or Pakistan or remain independent |
| Royal title | “Emperor of India” dropped from the British King’s titles |
| Interim constitution | Each dominion and its provinces were to be governed by the Government of India Act, 1935 (as adapted) until the new constitution came into force |
| No British veto | The British monarch lost the right to veto bills or to ask for bills to be reserved for his approval |
Who was who in August 1947: Lord Mountbatten became the first Governor-General of independent India and Jawaharlal Nehru the first Prime Minister. C. Rajagopalachari succeeded Mountbatten in 1948 as the last Governor-General and the only Indian to hold that office; the office ended on 26 January 1950.
Chhattisgarh angle: The lapse of paramountcy is why the 14 princely states of the Chhattisgarh region had to negotiate their future in 1947. They merged into the Central Provinces and Berar on 1 January 1948 (Feudatory States and Zamindaris).
Analysis for Mains: 1919 vs 1935
| Point | GoI Act 1919 | GoI Act 1935 |
|---|---|---|
| Provinces | Dyarchy (reserved + transferred) | Provincial autonomy; dyarchy abolished |
| Centre | Bicameral; no responsibility | Dyarchy proposed (never worked); federation proposed (never formed) |
| Subjects | Central vs provincial demarcated | Three lists (59 / 54 / 36); residuary to Viceroy |
| Communal representation | Extended to Sikhs, Christians, Anglo-Indians, Europeans | Continued and widened; reserved seats for depressed classes (Poona Pact) |
| Civil services | Public Service Commission (CPSC 1926) | Federal, Provincial and Joint PSCs |
| Courts | — | Federal Court (1937) |
Was the 1935 Act a step forward?
- Yes: Responsible government in the provinces worked from 1937; Indians gained real administrative experience; the federal design and institutions carried straight into the Constitution.
- No: Nehru called it “a machine with strong brakes but no engine”; Governors and the Viceroy kept special responsibilities and discretionary powers; the federation was designed to give the princes a block of nominated seats; the franchise was still narrow.
- Balance: The Constituent Assembly kept its machinery but replaced its spirit: sovereignty of the people, universal adult franchise, Fundamental Rights and a responsible executive at every level.
Memory Tricks
1935 list numbers
“59-54-36”: read it as Federal Fifty-nine, Provincial Fifty-four, Concurrent Thirty-six. The bigger number is always at the top (federal), the smallest is shared (concurrent).
Six bicameral provinces (1935)
“BB MBA U”: Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Bihar, Assam, United Provinces. The Central Provinces and Berar was not one of them.
Dyarchy moves
1919: dyarchy in the provinces. 1935: dyarchy moved up to the centre (on paper only), while provinces got autonomy.
Don’t Confuse
| This | vs | That |
|---|---|---|
| Dyarchy (1919, provinces): reserved vs transferred | vs | Dual government (1784): Court of Directors vs Board of Control |
| Communal Award (Aug 1932, MacDonald): separate electorate for depressed classes | vs | Poona Pact (Sept 1932, Gandhi–Ambedkar): joint electorate with reserved seats |
| Cripps (1942): CA after the war, dominion status | vs | Cabinet Mission (1946): CA elected at once by provincial assemblies |
| Mountbatten: first Governor-General of independent India | vs | C. Rajagopalachari: last (and only Indian) Governor-General |
| Residuary powers 1935: Viceroy | vs | Residuary powers 1950: Union Parliament (Art 248) |
| Federal Court (1937) | vs | Supreme Court (28 January 1950) |
Common Mistakes
MCQ traps
- “The 1935 Act established an All-India Federation.” It provided for one, but the federation never came into existence.
- “Dyarchy at the centre worked from 1937.” False. Only provincial autonomy came into force (1937). Central dyarchy never operated.
- “The 1919 Act introduced provincial autonomy.” False. It introduced dyarchy. Provincial autonomy came with the 1935 Act.
- “The Indian Independence Act made India a republic.” False. India became a dominion in 1947 and a republic only on 26 January 1950.
- “Central Provinces and Berar had a bicameral legislature under the 1935 Act.” False. Only six provinces did, and CP and Berar was not among them.
Practice
All questions below are original practice questions written in CGPSC style. They are not previous-year questions.
Level 1: Foundation
- Dyarchy in the provinces was introduced by the Government of India Act of ______ and abolished by the Act of ______.
- Under the 1935 Act, residuary powers were vested in the ______.
- The Indian Independence Act received royal assent on ______ 1947.
Answers
- 1919; 1935
- Viceroy (Governor-General)
- 18 July 1947
Level 2: Prelims MCQs
Q1. Consider the following statements about the Government of India Act, 1935:
- It introduced bicameral legislatures in six provinces.
- The All-India Federation it proposed came into existence in 1937.
- It abolished the Council of India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 1 and 3 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer and explanation
(b) 1 and 3 only. Six provinces (Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Bihar, Assam, United Provinces) got two houses, and the Council of India was abolished. Statement 2 is wrong: provincial autonomy started in 1937, but the federation never came into being because the princely states did not join.
Q2. Match List I with List II:
| List I | List II |
|---|---|
| A. Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms | 1. 1932 |
| B. Simon Commission appointed | 2. 1919 |
| C. Communal Award | 3. 1946 |
| D. Cabinet Mission | 4. 1927 |
- (a) A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3
- (b) A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
- (c) A-4, B-2, C-1, D-3
- (d) A-2, B-4, C-3, D-1
Answer and explanation
(a) A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3. Government of India Act 1919; Simon Commission appointed November 1927 (report 1930); Communal Award August 1932; Cabinet Mission 1946.
Q3. Under the Government of India Act, 1919, the “transferred subjects” in a province were administered by the:
- (a) Governor acting with his executive council
- (b) Governor acting with ministers responsible to the legislative council
- (c) Governor-General in Council
- (d) Secretary of State for India
Answer and explanation
(b). Transferred subjects went to ministers answerable to the provincial legislative council. Reserved subjects stayed with the Governor and his executive council, which was not responsible to the legislature. Together these made up dyarchy.
Q4. Which one of the following was not a provision of the Indian Independence Act, 1947?
- (a) Lapse of British paramountcy over the Indian princely states
- (b) Abolition of the office of the Secretary of State for India
- (c) Conferment of full power on the Constituent Assembly to repeal any Act of the British Parliament
- (d) Declaration of India as a sovereign democratic republic
Answer and explanation
(d). The 1947 Act made India a dominion with a Governor-General appointed by the British King on Indian advice. India declared itself a sovereign democratic republic only through its own Constitution, in force from 26 January 1950.
Q5. Who among the following was the Premier of the Central Provinces and Berar when India became independent?
- (a) N.B. Khare
- (b) Ravishankar Shukla
- (c) Ghanshyam Singh Gupta
- (d) Thakur Chhedilal
Answer and explanation
(b) Ravishankar Shukla, Premier from 27 April 1946. N.B. Khare was the first Premier, after the 1937 elections. Ghanshyam Singh Gupta and Thakur Chhedilal were members of the Constituent Assembly from the Chhattisgarh region.
Level 3: Mains Answer Writing
Q1. (60 words) What was dyarchy? Why did it fail?
Model answer outline
- Definition: Under the GoI Act 1919, provincial subjects were split into reserved (Governor + executive council) and transferred (Governor + ministers responsible to the legislature).
- Failure: Finance was reserved, so ministers had no money; Governor could overrule ministers; civil servants answered to the Secretary of State; no collective responsibility.
- Conclusion: Abolished in the provinces by the 1935 Act.
Q2. (150–200 words) “The Government of India Act, 1935 is the blueprint of the Indian Constitution.” Critically examine.
Model answer outline
- Intro: 321 sections and 10 schedules; the largest single source of the Constitution.
- Borrowed: federal scheme and three lists (59/54/36 → Seventh Schedule); office of Governor; emergency provisions; Federal Court → Supreme Court; Public Service Commissions; administrative details. A large part of the Constitution’s text follows its structure.
- Rejected or transformed:
- Sovereignty now lies with the people, not the British Parliament (Preamble).
- Universal adult franchise instead of about 10 per cent.
- Separate electorates abolished (Art 325); only reserved seats for SCs and STs.
- Fundamental Rights (absent in 1935) and DPSP added.
- Residuary powers to the Union, not to a Viceroy; responsible executive at the centre.
- Chhattisgarh angle: Provincial autonomy gave CP and Berar elected ministries (1937, 1946) whose leaders, such as Ravishankar Shukla, went on to the Constituent Assembly.
- Conclusion: The 1935 Act supplied the frame; the Constituent Assembly supplied the soul.
Quick Revision Table
| Item | Key facts |
|---|---|
| Montagu Declaration | 20 August 1917: gradual responsible government |
| GoI Act 1919 | In force 1921; dyarchy in provinces; bicameral centre with direct elections; 3 of 6 executive councillors Indian; communal representation to Sikhs, Christians, Anglo-Indians, Europeans; High Commissioner in London; CPSC 1926; 10-year review |
| Simon Commission | Appointed Nov 1927; 7 British members; report 1930 |
| Nehru Report | 1928; Motilal Nehru; Fundamental Rights |
| Communal Award / Poona Pact | Aug 1932 (MacDonald) / Sept 1932 (Gandhi–Ambedkar) |
| GoI Act 1935 | 321 sections, 10 schedules; federation (never formed); lists 59/54/36; residuary to Viceroy; provincial autonomy (1937); central dyarchy (never worked); 6 bicameral provinces; Council of India abolished; Federal, Provincial and Joint PSCs; Federal Court 1937; franchise about 10% |
| August Offer / Cripps | 1940 Linlithgow / March 1942 |
| Cabinet Mission | 1946: Pethick-Lawrence, Cripps, A.V. Alexander; plan of 16 May 1946 |
| Mountbatten Plan | 3 June 1947 |
| Indian Independence Act | Royal assent 18 July 1947; two dominions from 15 Aug 1947; CA sovereign + legislature; paramountcy lapsed; Secretary of State abolished; “Emperor of India” dropped |
| CP and Berar Premiers | N.B. Khare (1937); Ravishankar Shukla (from 27 April 1946) |
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
- The 1919 Act gave dyarchy in the provinces and a bicameral, partly elected central legislature, but no responsible government at the centre.
- The Simon Commission (1927), Round Table Conferences and Communal Award/Poona Pact (1932) led to the 1935 Act.
- The 1935 Act gave provincial autonomy (from 1937), three lists and the institutions the Constitution later kept; its federation and central dyarchy never worked.
- Cripps (1942) and the Cabinet Mission (1946) moved the Constituent Assembly from promise to reality.
- The Indian Independence Act (18 July 1947) created two dominions, made the Constituent Assembly sovereign and ended paramountcy.
What’s Next
- Constituent Assembly: how the Constitution was actually made
- Preamble and Salient Features: the sources the Constitution borrowed from, including the 1935 Act
- Centre–State Relations: what became of the three lists
- Quick Revision: Constitutional Development
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