Polity
Local Government: 73rd and 74th Amendments
Evolution of Local Government in India
From Ripon's 1882 resolution to the 73rd Amendment: Article 40, Balwant Rai Mehta, Ashok Mehta, G.V.K. Rao, L.M. Singhvi committees and the 64th Amendment Bill.
Prerequisites
- Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties: Article 40, the original (non-justiciable) promise of village panchayats
- Constitutional Development (1773–1950): the Acts of 1919 and 1935 that made local self-government a provincial subject
- Planning in India: the Community Development Programme, which the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee was set up to review
The Hook: Why Did It Take 43 Years?
Connect
In 1950 the Constitution asked the State to “take steps to organise village panchayats” (Article 40). Nine years later, on 2 October 1959, Jawaharlal Nehru inaugurated India’s first Panchayati Raj system at Nagaur in Rajasthan. Yet panchayats in most states, including undivided Madhya Pradesh, of which Chhattisgarh was then a part, went through long periods without elections, were superseded at will and had almost no money.
It took until 1992 for Parliament to give them a constitutional guarantee. Why did a promise made in 1950 need four decades, six committees and one failed Bill to become real?
Why it matters: committee names, years and recommendations (“which committee recommended two tiers?”, “who called PRIs grass without roots?”) are steady Prelims material. Mains asks you to trace the evolution and explain why constitutional status became necessary.
Stage 1: Local Government Before Independence
| Year | Event | Why remember it |
|---|---|---|
| 1687–88 | Madras Municipal Corporation set up by the East India Company | The first municipal body in India |
| 1726 | Municipal corporations at Bombay and Calcutta | Next two presidency towns |
| 1870 | Lord Mayo’s Resolution on financial decentralisation | Started the transfer of some finances to provinces and local bodies |
| 1882 | Lord Ripon’s Resolution (18 May 1882) | Called the “Magna Carta of local self-government”; Ripon is the “father of local self-government in India”. Proposed elected non-official majorities and non-official chairpersons |
| 1907–09 | Royal Commission on Decentralisation (chair: C.E.H. Hobhouse) | Stressed the village panchayat as the basic unit |
| 1919 | Government of India Act (Montagu–Chelmsford) | Local self-government became a transferred provincial subject under dyarchy, run by an Indian minister |
| 1935 | Government of India Act | Local self-government a provincial subject under provincial autonomy |
Gandhi and Gram Swaraj (ग्राम स्वराज)
Gandhi wanted each village to be a self-reliant “little republic”. The Constituent Assembly did not make the village the basic unit of the Constitution. Dr B.R. Ambedkar was openly sceptical of the village, which he called “a sink of localism”. The compromise was Article 40, a Directive Principle: “The State shall take steps to organise village panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self-government.” Being a DPSP, it was not enforceable in court. That single fact explains the next four decades.
Stage 2: Community Development and the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee
- Community Development Programme (CDP): launched 2 October 1952, block-level development with people’s participation.
- National Extension Service (NES): 1953.
- Both stayed largely official programmes and did not draw people in.
Balwant Rai Mehta Committee (1957)
Appointed in January 1957 to review the CDP and NES; reported in November 1957. It recommended “democratic decentralisation” (लोकतांत्रिक विकेंद्रीकरण), which came to be called Panchayati Raj (पंचायती राज).
| Recommendation | Detail |
|---|---|
| Three tiers | Gram Panchayat (village) → Panchayat Samiti (block) → Zila Parishad (district) |
| Elections | Village panchayat directly elected; Panchayat Samiti and Zila Parishad indirectly elected |
| Executive body | Panchayat Samiti (block) was the executive body |
| Zila Parishad | Advisory, coordinating and supervisory body, with the District Collector as chairman |
| Devolution | Genuine transfer of power and responsibility, with adequate resources |
- The National Development Council accepted the report in January 1958.
- Rajasthan was the first state to establish Panchayati Raj: Nagaur district, 2 October 1959, inaugurated by Nehru. Andhra Pradesh followed later in 1959.
- States then built very different systems: some with three tiers, some with two or four; some with the block, others with the district, as the strong tier.
Stage 3: Decline, and the Ashok Mehta Committee (1977–78)
By the mid-1960s panchayats were in decline: elections were postponed, bodies superseded, funds tied to state schemes, and local elites captured them.
The Janata Government appointed the Ashok (Asoka) Mehta Committee in December 1977. It reported in August 1978 with 132 recommendations.
| Recommendation | Detail |
|---|---|
| Two tiers | Zila Parishad at the district and Mandal Panchayat (मंडल पंचायत) for a group of villages (population about 15,000–20,000) |
| District as the unit | The district should be the first point of decentralisation below the state; the Zila Parishad as the executive body for planning |
| Political parties | Official participation of political parties in panchayat elections |
| Finance | Compulsory taxation powers for panchayats |
| Justice | Nyaya Panchayats as separate bodies, presided over by a qualified judge |
| Elections | Conducted by the state’s chief electoral officer in consultation with the Chief Election Commissioner |
| Reservation | Seats for SCs and STs in proportion to their population |
| Term | Four years |
| Status | Constitutional recognition of Panchayati Raj; a minister for PRIs in the state council of ministers |
The Janata Government fell before it could act at the Centre, but Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal reformed their panchayat laws in its spirit. West Bengal’s regular, party-based panchayat elections from 1978 became a reference point.
Stage 4: The Push for Constitutional Status (1985–1989)
| Committee | Year | Key idea |
|---|---|---|
| G.V.K. Rao Committee (set up by the Planning Commission) | 1985 | Bureaucratised development had left PRIs as “grass without roots”. Make the Zila Parishad pivotal and the district the basic unit of planning; post a District Development Commissioner |
| L.M. Singhvi Committee | 1986 | Constitutional recognition and protection for PRIs; Nyaya Panchayats for clusters of villages; more financial resources; the Gram Sabha as the embodiment of direct democracy |
| P.K. Thungon Committee (sub-committee of a parliamentary consultative committee) | 1988 | Constitutional recognition; three tiers; Zila Parishad as the pivot, with the Collector as its chief executive; a five-year term |
| V.N. Gadgil Committee (Congress Policy and Programmes Committee) | 1988 | Constitutional status; three tiers with direct elections; five-year term; reservation for SCs, STs and women; a State Finance Commission and a State Election Commission. Widely regarded as the template for the 1989 Bill |
The failed 64th Amendment Bill (1989)
- Rajiv Gandhi’s government introduced the 64th Constitutional Amendment Bill in July 1989.
- It passed the Lok Sabha but was defeated in the Rajya Sabha (October 1989). Opposition parties saw it as the Centre bypassing the states to reach panchayats directly.
- A parallel Bill for municipalities met the same fate.
Success in 1992
- The P.V. Narasimha Rao government introduced fresh Bills in September 1991.
- Parliament passed them in December 1992 as the 73rd (panchayats) and 74th (municipalities) Constitutional Amendment Acts, 1992.
- In force: 24 April 1993 (73rd) and 1 June 1993 (74th).
- 24 April is observed as National Panchayati Raj Day. A separate Ministry of Panchayati Raj was created in May 2004.
timeline title Road to the 73rd Amendment 1950 : Article 40 (DPSP) 1952 : Community Development Programme 1957 : Balwant Rai Mehta Committee 1959 : Nagaur, Rajasthan (2 Oct) 1977-78 : Ashok Mehta Committee 1985 : G.V.K. Rao Committee 1986 : L.M. Singhvi Committee 1989 : 64th Amendment Bill defeated in Rajya Sabha 1992 : 73rd and 74th Amendments passed 1993 : In force (24 April / 1 June)
Analysis for Mains: Why Did Constitutional Status Become Necessary?
- Non-justiciable Article 40: a DPSP could not compel any state to hold panchayat elections or devolve power.
- Irregular elections and supersession: states postponed polls for years and dissolved bodies at will. Only a constitutional mandate (fixed five-year term, election within six months of dissolution) could stop this.
- No money: panchayats depended on state grants with no assured share of revenue. Hence the State Finance Commission.
- Elite capture: without reservation, SCs, STs and women were largely absent. Hence Article 243D.
- Bureaucratic dominance: the “grass without roots” problem (G.V.K. Rao). Planning stayed with line departments and the Collector.
- Uniformity: systems varied wildly between states; a common minimum framework was needed while leaving details to states.
Balanced view: the 73rd Amendment fixed the structure (elections, reservation, commissions) but left powers (functions, funds, functionaries) to the states. That is why the debate since 1993 is about devolution, not about existence. See The 73rd Amendment.
Chhattisgarh angle
Chhattisgarh’s panchayats descend from Madhya Pradesh’s law: the MP Panchayat Raj Adhiniyam, 1993, was among the first state laws passed to conform to the 73rd Amendment. On formation in 2000, Chhattisgarh adapted it as the Chhattisgarh Panchayat Raj Adhiniyam, 1993. Details: Three-Tier Panchayati Raj in Chhattisgarh.
Memory Tricks
Committee order: 'Big Achievers Get Lasting Thanks, Gentlemen'
Balwant Rai Mehta (1957) → Ashok Mehta (1977) → G.V.K. Rao (1985) → L.M. Singhvi (1986) → Thungon (1988) → Gadgil (1988)
Tiers by committee
- Balwant Rai Mehta = 3 (three words in the name, three tiers: village, block, district)
- Ashok Mehta = 2 (two words, two tiers: Zila Parishad + Mandal Panchayat, “Mehta’s Mandal”)
- Rao and Singhvi = constitutional push: Rao diagnosed (“grass without roots”), Singhvi prescribed (“constitutional status”)
Don’t Confuse
| This | vs | That |
|---|---|---|
| Balwant Rai Mehta (1957): three tiers; Panchayat Samiti executive; Collector heads Zila Parishad | vs | Ashok Mehta (1977–78): two tiers; Zila Parishad executive; Mandal Panchayat; party participation |
| Lord Mayo (1870): financial decentralisation | vs | Lord Ripon (1882): “Magna Carta” of local self-government |
| G.V.K. Rao (1985): “grass without roots”; district as unit of planning | vs | L.M. Singhvi (1986): first strongly argued for constitutional recognition |
| 64th Amendment Bill (1989): defeated in Rajya Sabha | vs | 73rd Amendment Act (1992): passed; in force 24 April 1993 |
| Nagaur, Rajasthan (2 Oct 1959): first Panchayati Raj | vs | Madras (1687–88): first municipal corporation |
Common Mistakes
MCQ traps
- “Balwant Rai Mehta recommended a two-tier system.” False. Three tiers. Two tiers was Ashok Mehta.
- “Panchayati Raj was first introduced in Andhra Pradesh.” False. Rajasthan (Nagaur), 2 October 1959; Andhra Pradesh followed later that year.
- “The 64th Amendment Bill failed in the Lok Sabha.” False. It passed the Lok Sabha and failed in the Rajya Sabha.
- “Article 40 is a Fundamental Right.” False. It is a Directive Principle in Part IV.
- “The Collector chairing the Zila Parishad was an Ashok Mehta idea.” False. That was Balwant Rai Mehta.
Practice
All questions below are original practice questions written in CGPSC style. They are not previous-year questions.
Level 1: Foundation
- Lord Ripon’s Resolution of ______ is called the Magna Carta of local self-government.
- Panchayati Raj was first inaugurated at ______ district of ______ on 2 October 1959.
- Which committee described PRIs as “grass without roots”?
Answers
- 1882.
- Nagaur, Rajasthan.
- The G.V.K. Rao Committee (1985).
Level 2: Prelims MCQs
Q1. Consider the following statements about the Ashok Mehta Committee:
- It was appointed by the Janata Government in 1977.
- It recommended a three-tier system with the Panchayat Samiti as the executive body.
- It recommended official participation of political parties in panchayat elections.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 1 and 3 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer and explanation
(b) 1 and 3 only. The Ashok Mehta Committee was appointed in December 1977 by the Janata Government and favoured party participation. Statement 2 describes the Balwant Rai Mehta model. Ashok Mehta recommended two tiers (Zila Parishad and Mandal Panchayat) with the Zila Parishad as the executive body.
Q2. Match List I (Committee) with List II (Year):
| List I | List II |
|---|---|
| A. Balwant Rai Mehta | 1. 1985 |
| B. Ashok Mehta | 2. 1986 |
| C. G.V.K. Rao | 3. 1957 |
| D. L.M. Singhvi | 4. 1977 |
- (a) A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1
- (b) A-4, B-3, C-1, D-2
- (c) A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2
- (d) A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2
Answer and explanation
(c) A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2. Balwant Rai Mehta 1957, Ashok Mehta 1977 (report 1978), G.V.K. Rao 1985, L.M. Singhvi 1986. Option (a) swaps the two mid-1980s committees, the classic trap.
Q3. The Constitutional Amendment Bill on panchayats introduced in 1989 failed because:
- (a) It was rejected by more than half of the State Legislatures
- (b) It was defeated in the Rajya Sabha after passing the Lok Sabha
- (c) The President withheld assent
- (d) It was struck down by the Supreme Court
Answer and explanation
(b). The 64th Amendment Bill passed the Lok Sabha but fell in the Rajya Sabha in October 1989. A Bill must pass both Houses by a special majority before state ratification or assent even arises.
Q4. Which of the following was not a recommendation of the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee?
- (a) A three-tier structure from village to district
- (b) Direct election of the village panchayat
- (c) The District Collector as chairman of the Zila Parishad
- (d) Compulsory powers of taxation for panchayats and party-based elections
Answer and explanation
(d). Compulsory taxation powers and official participation of political parties were Ashok Mehta recommendations. Options (a) to (c) are all Balwant Rai Mehta.
Level 3: Mains Answer Writing
Q1. (60 words) What did the G.V.K. Rao Committee mean by “grass without roots”?
Model answer outline
- Set up by the Planning Commission in 1985 to review rural development administration.
- Found that development had been bureaucratised and cut off from PRIs, so programmes lacked local roots.
- Recommended making the district the basic unit of planning and the Zila Parishad pivotal, with elected bodies given real roles.
Q2. (150–200 words) Trace the evolution of Panchayati Raj in India from Article 40 to the 73rd Amendment. Why was constitutional status necessary?
Model answer outline
- Intro: Article 40 (DPSP) promised village panchayats as units of self-government, but it was non-justiciable.
- Body:
- Balwant Rai Mehta (1957): democratic decentralisation, three tiers; Rajasthan first (Nagaur, 1959).
- Decline in the 1960s–70s: postponed elections, supersession, lack of funds.
- Ashok Mehta (1977–78): two tiers, party participation, constitutional recognition; West Bengal, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh reforms.
- G.V.K. Rao (1985) and L.M. Singhvi (1986): “grass without roots”; constitutional status.
- 64th Bill (1989) failed in the Rajya Sabha; 73rd Amendment (1992) succeeded, in force 24 April 1993.
- Why constitutional status: mandatory elections every five years, reservation, SEC and SFC; protection from state whims.
- Chhattisgarh angle: the state inherited a 73rd-compliant law from Madhya Pradesh and has added 50% reservation for women and PESA Rules (2022).
- Conclusion: the Constitution secured the existence of local government; devolution of functions, funds and functionaries remains the unfinished task.
Quick Revision Table
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| First municipal corporation | Madras, 1687–88 |
| Lord Mayo | 1870 Resolution, financial decentralisation |
| Lord Ripon | 1882 Resolution, “Magna Carta”; father of local self-government |
| Local self-government a transferred subject | Government of India Act, 1919 (dyarchy) |
| Article 40 | DPSP: organise village panchayats |
| Community Development Programme | 2 October 1952 |
| Balwant Rai Mehta | 1957; three tiers; “democratic decentralisation”; Collector heads Zila Parishad |
| First Panchayati Raj | Nagaur, Rajasthan, 2 October 1959 |
| Ashok Mehta | Dec 1977 – Aug 1978; 132 recommendations; two tiers; Mandal Panchayat; parties |
| G.V.K. Rao | 1985; “grass without roots”; district as unit of planning |
| L.M. Singhvi | 1986; constitutional recognition; Nyaya Panchayats |
| Thungon / Gadgil | 1988; constitutional status; Gadgil proposed SFC and SEC |
| 64th Amendment Bill | 1989; passed Lok Sabha, defeated in Rajya Sabha |
| 73rd / 74th Amendments | Passed December 1992; in force 24 April 1993 / 1 June 1993 |
| Ministry of Panchayati Raj | May 2004 |
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
- Article 40 made panchayats a Directive Principle, which is why they stayed weak until 1992.
- Balwant Rai Mehta gave three tiers (1957); Ashok Mehta proposed two tiers and party participation (1977–78).
- G.V.K. Rao diagnosed “grass without roots” (1985); L.M. Singhvi prescribed constitutional status (1986).
- The 64th Amendment Bill failed in the Rajya Sabha (1989); the 73rd and 74th passed in 1992 and came into force in 1993.
- For Mains, frame the evolution as existence secured, devolution pending.
What’s Next
- The 73rd Amendment: Panchayati Raj Institutions: Part IX article by article
- The 74th Amendment: Urban Local Bodies: the urban counterpart
- Three-Tier Panchayati Raj in Chhattisgarh: how the state applies it
- Centre–State Relations: the federal debate that sank the 1989 Bill
Advertisement