Science & Technology
Space and Defence Technology
Indian Space Programme: Evolution, Institutions and Launch Vehicles
ISRO from Thumba (1963) to LVM3: milestones, DOS/IN-SPACe/NSIL, PSLV vs GSLV vs SSLV, orbits, spaceports and space reforms, dated as of 2026.
Prerequisites
- Motion and Force — Newton’s third law is the whole idea of a rocket; gravity explains why orbits need speed.
- Basic map sense of India’s east coast — Sriharikota (Andhra Pradesh) and Thumba (Kerala) recur in questions.
The Hook: A Rocket Carried on a Bicycle
Connect
A famous 1960s photograph shows a rocket part being carried on a bicycle at Thumba, a fishing village near Thiruvananthapuram, where a church served as an early office. Six decades later, the same programme put a lander near the Moon’s south pole and, in 2025, launched a 6,100 kg American satellite for a paying customer.
How did a programme with almost nothing build its own rockets, and which rocket does which job? Most Prelims questions in this area are about exactly that: milestones, institutions and launch vehicles.
Why it matters: Prelims asks “first”, “which vehicle”, “which orbit” and “which institution” questions. Mains GS-II (Paper IV) asks about the role of space technology in development and about private-sector reforms.
Milestones of the Indian Space Programme (भारतीय अंतरिक्ष कार्यक्रम)
| Year | Milestone |
|---|---|
| 1962 | INCOSPAR (Indian National Committee for Space Research) set up under the Department of Atomic Energy, led by Dr Vikram Sarabhai |
| 21 Nov 1963 | First sounding rocket (US-made Nike-Apache) launched from Thumba (TERLS), Kerala |
| 15 Aug 1969 | ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation, भारतीय अंतरिक्ष अनुसंधान संगठन) formed, replacing INCOSPAR |
| 1972 | Space Commission and Department of Space (DOS) set up; ISRO brought under DOS |
| 19 Apr 1975 | Aryabhata, India’s first satellite, launched by the Soviet Union |
| 1975–76 | SITE (Satellite Instructional Television Experiment) used a NASA satellite (ATS-6) to beam educational TV to villages |
| 18 Jul 1980 | SLV-3 places Rohini (RS-1) in orbit — India’s first satellite launched by an Indian rocket (project led by Dr A.P.J. Abdul Kalam) |
| 1981 | APPLE, India’s first experimental communication satellite |
| 1982–83 | INSAT system begins (INSAT-1A 1982; INSAT-1B 1983 became the first operational one) |
| 3 Apr 1984 | Rakesh Sharma, first Indian in space (Soviet Soyuz T-11) |
| 1988 | IRS-1A, first Indian Remote Sensing satellite (launched by the USSR) |
| 1994 | First successful PSLV flight (PSLV-D2) |
| 2001 | First GSLV flight |
| 2008 | Chandrayaan-1 |
| 2013–14 | Mars Orbiter Mission (launched Nov 2013, Mars orbit 24 Sep 2014) |
| Jan 2014 | GSLV-D5: first successful flight with the indigenous cryogenic upper stage |
| 2017 | PSLV-C37 launches 104 satellites in one mission (15 Feb); first orbital flight of GSLV Mk III, now LVM3 (June) |
| 2019–20 | NSIL (2019) and IN-SPACe (2020) created; space sector opened to private firms |
| 23 Aug 2023 | Chandrayaan-3 lands near the lunar south pole |
| 2023–25 | Aditya-L1, XPoSat, SpaDeX docking, NISAR — see Space Exploration and Human Spaceflight |
Sarabhai's vision (Mains quote)
Vikram Sarabhai argued that India must be “second to none in the application of advanced technologies to the real problems of man and society”. This application-first philosophy — communication, weather, remote sensing, education — explains why India built INSAT and IRS before chasing prestige missions. It is the best opening line for any Mains answer on “Is a space programme a luxury for a developing country?”
Who Does What: Institutions
Policy and commercial bodies
| Body | Year | Role |
|---|---|---|
| Department of Space (DOS) | 1972 | Ministry-level department under the Prime Minister. The ISRO Chairman is also Secretary, DOS and Chairman, Space Commission |
| Space Commission | 1972 | Frames space policy and budget |
| ISRO | 1969 | Research and development agency of DOS: rockets, satellites, missions |
| Antrix Corporation | 1992 | Earlier commercial arm of ISRO |
| NewSpace India Limited (NSIL) | 2019 | DOS public-sector company: demand-driven satellite missions, commercial launches (for example LVM3’s commercial flights), technology transfer to industry |
| IN-SPACe (Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre) | June 2020 | Single-window regulator and promoter that authorises private space activities; headquartered in Ahmedabad |
ISRO Chairman (as of 2026): Dr V. Narayanan, a propulsion specialist and former Director of LPSC, in office since 14 January 2025 (two-year term), succeeding S. Somanath.
Key ISRO centres
| Centre | Place | Job |
|---|---|---|
| VSSC (Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre) | Thiruvananthapuram | Lead centre for launch vehicles |
| URSC (U R Rao Satellite Centre) | Bengaluru | Lead centre for satellites |
| SDSC SHAR (Satish Dhawan Space Centre) | Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh | Spaceport with two launch pads |
| LPSC (Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre) | Valiamala and Bengaluru | Liquid and cryogenic engines |
| IPRC (ISRO Propulsion Complex) | Mahendragiri, Tamil Nadu | Engine and stage testing |
| SAC (Space Applications Centre) | Ahmedabad | Payloads and applications |
| NRSC (National Remote Sensing Centre) | Hyderabad | Receives and processes remote-sensing data; runs the Bhuvan geoportal |
| ISTRAC | Bengaluru | Tracking, telemetry and command network |
| MCF (Master Control Facility) | Hassan (Karnataka) and Bhopal | Controls geostationary satellites |
| HSFC (Human Space Flight Centre) | Bengaluru | Gaganyaan programme |
| PRL (Physical Research Laboratory) | Ahmedabad | Autonomous unit of DOS; space science (founded by Vikram Sarabhai) |
| IIST | Thiruvananthapuram | Deemed university for space science and technology |
MCF Bhopal — the nearest one to us
The second Master Control Facility is at Bhopal, in Chhattisgarh’s parent state. It is a small but useful “location” fact that state-level papers like to pair with Hassan.
Orbits in One Table
A satellite’s job decides its orbit. Learn this table before launch vehicles, because every vehicle is described by “how much mass to which orbit”.
| Orbit | Height (approx.) | Typical users |
|---|---|---|
| Low Earth Orbit (LEO) | about 160–2,000 km | Space stations (ISS ~400 km), Gaganyaan, many small satellites |
| Sun-Synchronous Polar Orbit (SSPO / SSO) | about 500–900 km, near-polar | Earth observation (IRS, Cartosat, RISAT, NISAR): passes over a place at the same local time, so images are comparable |
| Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO) | elliptical, apogee ~36,000 km | A “parking” orbit from which the satellite raises itself to GEO |
| Geostationary Orbit (GEO) | 35,786 km above the equator | Communication and weather satellites (INSAT, GSAT): one revolution in ~24 hours, so they appear fixed in the sky |
| Geosynchronous inclined (GSO) | ~36,000 km, inclined | Some NavIC satellites trace a figure-of-eight over India |
| Halo orbit at L1 | ~1.5 million km towards the Sun | Aditya-L1 — uninterrupted view of the Sun |
Launch Vehicles (प्रक्षेपण यान)
The family at a glance
| Vehicle | Stages | Typical capability (approx.) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| SLV-3 (1979–83) | 4, all solid | ~40 kg to LEO | First Indian launcher; Rohini 1980 |
| ASLV (1987–94) | 5, solid | ~150 kg to LEO | Strap-on technology demonstrator |
| PSLV (since 1993) | 4: solid – liquid – solid – liquid | ~1,750 kg to SSPO (~600 km) | ISRO’s workhorse; launched Chandrayaan-1, Mars Orbiter, Aditya-L1, SpaDeX |
| GSLV (Mk II, since 2001) | 3: solid core with liquid strap-ons, liquid second stage, indigenous cryogenic upper stage | ~2,000+ kg to GTO | Navigation (NVS) and weather satellites; NISAR (2025) |
| LVM3 (formerly GSLV Mk III, since 2014/2017) | 2 large solid strap-ons (S200) + liquid core (L110) + cryogenic upper stage (C25) | ~4,000 kg to GTO; ~8,000 kg to LEO | Heaviest operational Indian rocket; Chandrayaan-2 and -3; human-rated version for Gaganyaan |
| SSLV (since 2022) | 3 solid + a liquid trim module | ~500 kg to LEO | Small Satellite Launch Vehicle, launch-on-demand; first flight failed (Aug 2022), succeeded in Feb 2023 and Aug 2024 |
| NGLV (under development) | Partly reusable first stage | ~30 tonnes to LEO (planned) | Approved Sep 2024 (₹8,240 crore) for the space station era |
Why the cryogenic engine was a big deal
A cryogenic stage burns liquid hydrogen (stored at about −253 °C) with liquid oxygen (about −183 °C). It gives far more thrust per kilogram of propellant than solid or ordinary liquid fuels, so it is essential for lifting heavy satellites to GTO.
In the early 1990s, the US pressured Russia (under missile-technology rules) not to transfer cryogenic technology to India. ISRO received some Russian engines but had to develop its own. The first successful flight with the indigenous Cryogenic Upper Stage came on GSLV-D5 in January 2014. LVM3 uses the more powerful indigenous CE-20 engine. A good Mains example of technology denial driving self-reliance (आत्मनिर्भरता).
Recent launch record (dated)
| Date | Mission | Result |
|---|---|---|
| 29 Jan 2025 | GSLV-F15 / NVS-02 — the 100th launch from Sriharikota | Launch fine; satellite’s own engine valve failed, so it could not reach its final orbit |
| 18 May 2025 | PSLV-C61 / EOS-09 | Failed (third-stage problem) |
| 30 Jul 2025 | GSLV-F16 / NISAR | Success — first GSLV launch to a sun-synchronous orbit |
| 2 Nov 2025 | LVM3-M5 / CMS-03 | Success — reported as the heaviest communication satellite (~4,400 kg) launched from India to GTO |
| 24 Dec 2025 | LVM3-M6 / BlueBird Block-2 (AST SpaceMobile, USA) | Success — ~6,100 kg, heaviest payload ever launched by LVM3; a commercial NSIL flight |
| 12 Jan 2026 | PSLV-C62 / EOS-N1 + 15 co-passengers | Failed — third-stage disturbance; the second PSLV failure within eight months |
| 4 Sep 2026 | GSLV-F17 / EOS-05 | Reported success |
Reading the record for Mains
PSLV had flown 60+ missions with only a few failures before 2025, which is why two third-stage failures within eight months (May 2025, Jan 2026) drew attention to quality assurance and to over-reliance on one workhorse. At the same time, LVM3’s commercial flights showed India can earn foreign exchange from heavy launches. Both facts belong in a balanced answer.
Spaceports
| Site | Status (as of 2026) |
|---|---|
| SDSC SHAR, Sriharikota (Andhra Pradesh) | Two launch pads; a Third Launch Pad was approved in January 2025 (for NGLV and human missions) |
| Kulasekarapattinam (Thoothukudi, Tamil Nadu) | Second spaceport, mainly for SSLV; foundation stone laid February 2024. Its southern location allows launches to polar orbit without flying over Sri Lanka |
| TERLS, Thumba (Kerala) | The original sounding-rocket station, near the magnetic equator |
Why Sriharikota? It is on the east coast (rockets launch eastward to gain a boost from Earth’s rotation, and the debris falls into the Bay of Bengal), close to the equator, and a sparsely populated island.
Space Reforms and the Private Sector
| Reform | Year | What changed |
|---|---|---|
| IN-SPACe created | 2020 | Private firms can build and launch rockets and satellites, use ISRO facilities |
| Indian Space Association (ISpA) | 2021 | Industry body of space companies |
| Indian Space Policy 2023 | April 2023 | Defines roles: ISRO focuses on R&D and advanced missions; NSIL on commercial work; IN-SPACe authorises; private sector can do end-to-end activities |
| FDI liberalised | Feb 2024 | Up to 74% automatic route for satellite manufacturing and operation; up to 49% automatic for launch vehicles; up to 100% automatic for components and sub-systems |
Private launch firsts:
- 18 Nov 2022: Skyroot Aerospace’s Vikram-S — India’s first privately built rocket (sub-orbital).
- 30 May 2024: Agnikul Cosmos’s Agnibaan SOrTeD — sub-orbital flight with a semi-cryogenic, single-piece 3D-printed engine, from India’s first private launch pad at Sriharikota.
- 18 Jul 2026: Skyroot’s Vikram-1 reached orbit from Sriharikota — the first orbital launch by an Indian private company.
Memory Tricks
PSLV stage order: 'Sun Loves Sun Light'
Solid – Liquid – Solid – Liquid. PSLV is the only Indian launcher that alternates like this.
Which rocket for which orbit
- PSLV → Polar (SSPO) — light Earth-observation satellites
- GSLV → Geosynchronous transfer (medium communication/navigation satellites)
- LVM3 → the Largest load (heavy GTO satellites, Moon missions, humans)
- SSLV → Small satellites on demand
Timeline hook: 62–69–72
INCOSPAR 1962 → ISRO 1969 → DOS 1972. Three dates, three steps from committee to organisation to ministry.
Don’t Confuse
| This | vs | That |
|---|---|---|
| Aryabhata (1975) — first Indian satellite, launched by the USSR | vs | Rohini (1980) — first satellite launched by an Indian rocket (SLV-3) |
| NSIL — commercial company under DOS | vs | IN-SPACe — regulator/promoter that authorises private activity |
| Geostationary — over the equator, appears fixed | vs | Geosynchronous — 24-hour period but can be inclined (figure-of-eight track) |
| Cryogenic — liquid H₂ + liquid O₂ (LVM3, GSLV upper stages) | vs | Semi-cryogenic — refined kerosene + liquid O₂ (Agnibaan; ISRO’s SE-2000 under development) |
| VSSC — rockets (Thiruvananthapuram) | vs | URSC — satellites (Bengaluru) |
Common Mistakes
MCQ traps
- “Aryabhata was launched from Sriharikota.” False. It was launched by the Soviet Union from Soviet territory.
- “PSLV has a cryogenic stage.” False. Its stages are solid and earth-storable liquid. Cryogenic stages are on GSLV and LVM3.
- “GSLV and LVM3 are the same rocket.” False. LVM3 was earlier called GSLV Mk III, but it is a different, heavier vehicle from GSLV (Mk II).
- “IN-SPACe is a company that sells ISRO launches.” False. That is NSIL. IN-SPACe authorises and promotes.
- “The first private orbital launch was Vikram-S (2022).” False. Vikram-S was sub-orbital. The first private orbital launch was Vikram-1 (July 2026).
Practice
All questions below are original practice questions written in CGPSC style. They are not previous-year questions.
Level 1: Foundation
- ISRO was established on ______ 1969.
- The first satellite placed in orbit by an Indian launch vehicle was ______, launched by SLV-3 in 1980.
- Geostationary satellites orbit at a height of about ______ km above the equator.
Answers
- 15 August 1969.
- Rohini (RS-1).
- About 35,786 km (often rounded to 36,000 km).
Level 2: Prelims MCQs
Q1. Consider the following statements about the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV):
- It uses alternating solid and liquid stages.
- It has an indigenous cryogenic upper stage.
- It launched both the Mars Orbiter Mission and Aditya-L1.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 1 and 3 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer and explanation
(b) 1 and 3 only. PSLV’s four stages are solid, liquid, solid and liquid. It has no cryogenic stage — that is the feature of GSLV and LVM3. PSLV-C25 launched the Mars Orbiter Mission (2013) and PSLV-C57 launched Aditya-L1 (2023).
Q2. Match List I (Institution) with List II (Location):
| List I | List II |
|---|---|
| A. Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre | 1. Hyderabad |
| B. National Remote Sensing Centre | 2. Thiruvananthapuram |
| C. Space Applications Centre | 3. Bengaluru |
| D. U R Rao Satellite Centre | 4. Ahmedabad |
- (a) A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
- (b) A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2
- (c) A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3
- (d) A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
Answer and explanation
(a) A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3. VSSC (launch vehicles) is at Thiruvananthapuram; NRSC (remote-sensing data, Bhuvan) at Hyderabad; SAC (payloads and applications) at Ahmedabad; URSC (satellites) at Bengaluru.
Q3. Which body acts as the single-window agency to authorise space activities of private companies in India?
- (a) NewSpace India Limited
- (b) Antrix Corporation
- (c) IN-SPACe
- (d) Indian Space Association
Answer and explanation
(c) IN-SPACe, created in 2020 and headquartered in Ahmedabad. NSIL and Antrix are commercial public-sector arms; ISpA is an industry association, not a government body.
Q4. Why are most Indian launches from Sriharikota made towards the east?
- (a) To avoid the Western Ghats
- (b) To gain extra velocity from Earth’s west-to-east rotation and drop spent stages over the sea
- (c) Because the magnetic equator passes through Sriharikota
- (d) Because geostationary satellites must be launched over land
Answer and explanation
(b). Earth rotates west to east, so an eastward launch gets a free boost (larger nearer the equator), and the Bay of Bengal to the east is a safe zone for falling stages. The magnetic equator point refers to Thumba, not Sriharikota.
Q5. Which one of the following was India’s first private company to place a rocket in orbit (as of 2026)?
- (a) Agnikul Cosmos, with Agnibaan SOrTeD
- (b) Skyroot Aerospace, with Vikram-S
- (c) Skyroot Aerospace, with Vikram-1
- (d) Pixxel, with Firefly
Answer and explanation
(c). Vikram-1 reached orbit on 18 July 2026. Vikram-S (2022) and Agnibaan SOrTeD (2024) were sub-orbital flights. Pixxel builds hyperspectral satellites, not rockets.
Level 3: Mains Answer Writing
Q1. (150–200 words) Trace the evolution of India’s launch vehicle capability from SLV-3 to LVM3. What role did technology denial play?
Model answer outline
- Intro: From a 40 kg payload (SLV-3, 1980) to a 6,100 kg commercial satellite (LVM3, 2025) in 45 years.
- Body:
- SLV-3 and ASLV — solid motors, guidance, strap-on experience; Kalam’s SLV-3 put Rohini in orbit (1980).
- PSLV — the workhorse for polar orbits and deep-space missions (Chandrayaan-1, MOM, Aditya-L1); 104 satellites in one flight (2017).
- GSLV — cryogenic upper stage; technology denial of the early 1990s forced indigenous development, first success Jan 2014.
- LVM3 — heavy lift (CE-20 cryogenic engine), Chandrayaan-2/3, commercial OneWeb and BlueBird launches via NSIL; human-rated for Gaganyaan.
- SSLV and NGLV — small-satellite market and reusable heavy lift for the space-station era.
- Balance: PSLV failures in 2025–26 show the need for stronger quality systems and more launch options, including private rockets (Vikram-1, 2026).
- Conclusion: Denial turned into self-reliance; India now sells launch services instead of buying them.
Q2. (100 words) What are the objectives of the Indian Space Policy 2023?
Model answer outline
- Clear roles: ISRO for R&D and advanced missions; NSIL for commercial and operational work; IN-SPACe to authorise and promote; DOS for policy.
- Allows non-government entities end-to-end space activity: launch vehicles, satellites, ground stations, data services.
- Aims to raise India’s share of the global space economy and attract investment (backed by FDI liberalisation, Feb 2024).
- Conclusion: Moves ISRO from “doing everything” to “enabling everyone”.
Quick Revision Table
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| INCOSPAR | 1962, under DAE, Vikram Sarabhai |
| First sounding rocket | Nike-Apache, Thumba, 21 Nov 1963 |
| ISRO | 15 Aug 1969 |
| DOS and Space Commission | 1972 |
| First satellite | Aryabhata, 19 Apr 1975 (Soviet launch) |
| First Indian launch to orbit | SLV-3 / Rohini, 18 Jul 1980 |
| First Indian in space | Rakesh Sharma, 3 Apr 1984 |
| Indigenous cryogenic stage first success | GSLV-D5, Jan 2014 |
| PSLV stages | Solid – liquid – solid – liquid |
| Heaviest Indian rocket | LVM3 (C25 cryogenic stage, CE-20 engine) |
| Heaviest LVM3 payload | BlueBird Block-2, ~6,100 kg, 24 Dec 2025 |
| PSLV failures | C61 (May 2025), C62 (Jan 2026) |
| NSIL / IN-SPACe | 2019 / 2020 (Ahmedabad) |
| Space Policy | April 2023 |
| ISRO Chairman (as of 2026) | Dr V. Narayanan (since Jan 2025) |
| Second spaceport | Kulasekarapattinam, Tamil Nadu (SSLV) |
| First private orbital launch | Skyroot Vikram-1, 18 Jul 2026 |
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
- The programme grew application-first (Sarabhai): communication, weather and remote sensing came before prestige missions.
- PSLV (polar, solid-liquid alternating), GSLV (cryogenic, GTO), LVM3 (heavy, human-rated) and SSLV (small) each have a distinct job.
- The cryogenic story is India’s best example of technology denial leading to self-reliance.
- After 2020, IN-SPACe, NSIL, Space Policy 2023 and FDI reforms opened the sector; Skyroot’s Vikram-1 became the first private orbital launch in July 2026.
- Recent PSLV failures (2025, 2026) are part of a balanced, up-to-date answer.
What’s Next
- Satellites and Their Applications — what the rockets carry and how it helps a Chhattisgarh farmer
- Space Exploration and Human Spaceflight — Chandrayaan, Mangalyaan, Aditya-L1, Gaganyaan
- Missiles and Strategic Systems — how rocket technology became missile technology
- Physics in Everyday Life — the physics of motion behind every launch
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