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Six Orthodox Schools and Advaita Vedanta
Six darshanas for CGPSC Mains GS-IV: Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, Vedanta, pramanas, causation, and Shankara's Advaita vs other Vedanta.
Prerequisites
- Vedas and Upanishads: Brahman, Atman and Rta — Brahman, Atman, maya-like ideas and moksha come from here.
- Charvaka, Jain and Bauddha Philosophy — the astika schools developed partly in debate with these rivals.
The Hook: A Philosopher Born near Rajim
Connect
In the forest village of Champaran (चंपारण) near Raipur, pilgrims visit the birthplace of Vallabhacharya, born there in 1479. He founded the Pushtimarg and taught Shuddhadvaita, “pure non-dualism”. His teaching was a reply to an older one: Shankaracharya’s Advaita, which said the world we see is ultimately maya.
Behind both stood a long tradition of six “orthodox” systems, each with its own founder, sutra text, theory of knowledge and path to liberation. What are the six darshanas, how do they differ, and why did Advaita become the most influential of them?
Why it matters: Mains asks for short notes (Sankhya’s dualism, Nyaya’s pramanas, Ashtanga Yoga, maya) and comparisons (Sankhya vs Advaita; Advaita vs Vishishtadvaita). Keep a one-line definition and one distinguishing feature for each school.
The Six Darshanas (षड्दर्शन) at a Glance
Darshana (दर्शन) means “seeing”, a vision of reality. The six astika schools accept the authority of the Veda and are traditionally grouped in three pairs:
graph TD
A["Six astika darshanas"] --> B["Nyaya + Vaisheshika
logic and atomism"]
A --> C["Sankhya + Yoga
dualism and discipline"]
A --> D["Mimamsa + Vedanta
Vedic interpretation"]
D --> E["Purva Mimamsa
ritual (karma-kanda)"]
D --> F["Uttara Mimamsa / Vedanta
knowledge (jnana-kanda)"]| School | Founder (traditional) | Basic text | Core idea |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nyaya (न्याय) | Gautama (Akshapada) | Nyaya Sutra | Logic and epistemology; four pramanas; God proved by inference |
| Vaisheshika (वैशेषिक) | Kanada (Uluka) | Vaisheshika Sutra | Atomism (paramanu); categories (padarthas) of reality |
| Sankhya (सांख्य) | Kapila | Sankhya Karika of Ishvarakrishna (earliest surviving text) | Dualism of purusha and prakriti; 25 tattvas |
| Yoga (योग) | Patanjali | Yoga Sutra | Discipline of the mind; Ashtanga Yoga; accepts Ishvara |
| Purva Mimamsa (पूर्व मीमांसा) | Jaimini | Mimamsa Sutra | Dharma = Vedic injunction; ritual; Veda eternal and authorless |
| Vedanta / Uttara Mimamsa (वेदान्त) | Badarayana | Brahma Sutra | Brahman as ultimate reality; interprets the Upanishads |
Nyaya: The School of Logic
- Aim: right knowledge leads to liberation (apavarga), freedom from pain.
- 16 categories (padarthas), beginning with pramana (means of knowledge) and prameya (objects of knowledge).
- Four pramanas: pratyaksha (perception), anumana (inference), upamana (comparison/analogy), shabda (reliable testimony).
- Five-membered inference (panchavayava):
| Member | Example |
|---|---|
| 1. Pratijna (proposition) | The hill has fire |
| 2. Hetu (reason) | Because it has smoke |
| 3. Udaharana (example with rule) | Wherever there is smoke there is fire, as in a kitchen |
| 4. Upanaya (application) | This hill has smoke |
| 5. Nigamana (conclusion) | Therefore this hill has fire |
- Hetvabhasa: fallacies of reasoning.
- God (Ishvara): proved by inference (the world is an effect, so it needs an intelligent maker). Udayana’s Nyayakusumanjali is the classic theistic work.
- Navya-Nyaya (“new logic”): Gangesha’s Tattvachintamani (14th century, Mithila), a highly technical logic that influenced all later Indian scholarship.
Vaisheshika: The School of Atoms and Categories
- Name from vishesha, “particularity”, the feature that makes each eternal thing distinct.
- Atomism: the material world is made of eternal, indivisible paramanus of earth, water, fire and air. Two atoms make a dyad (dvyanuka), three dyads a triad (tryanuka), the smallest visible unit.
- Seven padarthas: dravya (substance), guna (quality), karma (action), samanya (universal), vishesha (particularity), samavaya (inherence). Abhava (non-existence) was added as the seventh by later Vaisheshikas.
- Nine substances (dravyas): earth, water, fire, air, akasha, kala (time), dik (space/direction), atman, manas (mind).
- Pramanas: perception and inference (two).
- Nyaya and Vaisheshika merged into a single Nyaya-Vaisheshika system.
Sankhya: Dualism of Purusha and Prakriti
| Principle | Nature |
|---|---|
| Purusha (पुरुष) | Pure consciousness; many; inactive; a witness |
| Prakriti (प्रकृति) | Unconscious primordial matter; one; active; made of the three gunas: sattva, rajas, tamas |
- Evolution: when purusha comes near prakriti, the balance of gunas is disturbed and prakriti evolves: mahat/buddhi (intellect) → ahamkara (ego) → manas, 5 jnanendriyas, 5 karmendriyas, 5 tanmatras (subtle elements) → 5 mahabhutas (gross elements). With purusha and prakriti, that makes 25 tattvas.
- Analogy: the lame man and the blind man: purusha can see but not move; prakriti can move but not see. Together they produce the world.
- Satkaryavada (सत्कार्यवाद): the effect pre-exists in the cause (curd in milk, oil in sesame). Creation is a real transformation (parinamavada) of prakriti.
- Bondage and liberation: bondage is the purusha’s false identification with prakriti; liberation (kaivalya, isolation) comes from viveka, discriminating knowledge of the difference.
- God: classical Sankhya does not need a creator God.
Yoga: The Discipline of the Mind
- Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra, in four padas: Samadhi, Sadhana, Vibhuti, Kaivalya.
- Definition (1.2): “Yogash chitta-vritti-nirodhah” (योगश्चित्तवृत्तिनिरोधः), yoga is the stilling of the fluctuations of the mind.
- Metaphysics: accepts Sankhya’s 25 tattvas and adds Ishvara, a special purusha untouched by affliction and karma. Hence it is sometimes called Seshvara (theistic) Sankhya.
- Five kleshas (afflictions): avidya (ignorance), asmita (egoism), raga (attachment), dvesha (aversion), abhinivesha (clinging to life).
Ashtanga Yoga (अष्टांग योग): the eight limbs
| # | Limb | Content |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Yama | Five restraints: ahimsa, satya, asteya (non-stealing), brahmacharya, aparigraha (non-possession) |
| 2 | Niyama | Five observances: shaucha (purity), santosha (contentment), tapas (austerity), svadhyaya (self-study), Ishvara-pranidhana (devotion to God) |
| 3 | Asana | Steady, comfortable posture |
| 4 | Pranayama | Regulation of breath |
| 5 | Pratyahara | Withdrawal of senses from objects |
| 6 | Dharana | Concentration on one point |
| 7 | Dhyana | Meditation, unbroken flow of attention |
| 8 | Samadhi | Absorption |
The first five are external (bahiranga) aids; the last three, together called samyama, are internal (antaranga).
Yoga and public life
The yamas read like a public servant’s code: non-violence, truthfulness, honesty, restraint and non-possession (no accumulation of illicit wealth). The International Day of Yoga (21 June) was declared by the UN General Assembly in December 2014. The date falls at or near the summer solstice, the longest day in the northern hemisphere.
Purva Mimamsa: The Philosophy of Vedic Action
- Dharma is “what is enjoined by the Veda” (Mimamsa Sutra 1.1.2).
- The Veda is apaurusheya (not made by any person, human or divine) and eternal; hence it is self-valid.
- Svatah-pramanyavada: knowledge is valid by itself, unless proved false (Nyaya, by contrast, holds validity is established from outside).
- Apurva (अपूर्व): an unseen potency produced by a ritual act that later yields its result.
- Two sub-schools: Kumarila Bhatta (Bhatta school; six pramanas) and Prabhakara (Prabhakara school; five, rejecting anupalabdhi).
- God: early Mimamsa does not need a creator God; the Vedic injunction itself is the authority.
- Contribution: its rules of interpretation (mimamsa nyaya) influenced Hindu law and the interpretation of texts.
The Pramana Ladder (Means of Valid Knowledge)
| No. | Pramanas accepted | School(s) |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Perception | Charvaka |
| 2 | + Inference | Buddhist, Vaisheshika |
| 3 | + Testimony (shabda) | Sankhya, Yoga |
| 4 | + Comparison (upamana) | Nyaya |
| 5 | + Postulation (arthapatti) | Prabhakara Mimamsa |
| 6 | + Non-cognition (anupalabdhi) | Bhatta Mimamsa, Advaita Vedanta |
Arthapatti example: “Devadatta is fat but does not eat by day”, so he must eat at night. Anupalabdhi: knowing that there is no pot on the floor by its non-perception.
Theories of Causation
| Theory | Claim | School |
|---|---|---|
| Asatkaryavada / Arambhavada | Effect is a new creation, not pre-existing in the cause | Nyaya-Vaisheshika |
| Satkaryavada: Parinamavada | Effect pre-exists; cause really transforms into it (milk → curd) | Sankhya, Yoga; also Ramanuja |
| Satkaryavada: Vivartavada | Effect is only an apparent transformation of the cause (rope appears as snake) | Advaita Vedanta |
| Pratityasamutpada | Dependent origination; momentary events | Buddhist |
Vedanta and Advaita (अद्वैत)
Vedanta interprets the Prasthanatrayi: the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutra and the Bhagavad Gita. Every major Vedanta school wrote commentaries on these three.
Shankaracharya (शंकराचार्य)
| Feature | Fact |
|---|---|
| Period | 8th century CE (traditional dates 788–820; many scholars place him somewhat earlier in the 8th century) |
| Birthplace | Kaladi, Kerala |
| Lineage | Disciple of Govindapada, who was a disciple of Gaudapada (author of the Mandukya Karika, the earliest systematic Advaita text) |
| Works | Commentaries (bhashya) on the Brahma Sutra, the principal Upanishads and the Gita; many hymns and manuals are also attributed to him, some with disputed authorship |
| Mathas | Sringeri (south), Dwarka (west), Puri (east), Jyotirmath (north) |
Core doctrines
Advaita in one verse
ब्रह्म सत्यं जगन्मिथ्या जीवो ब्रह्मैव नापरः
Brahma satyam jagan mithya, jivo brahmaiva naparah
“Brahman alone is real; the world is mithya (not ultimately real); the individual self is none other than Brahman.”
(A traditional summary of Shankara’s teaching.)
| Concept | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Brahman | The only reality: nirguna, Sat-Chit-Ananda |
| Maya (माया) | The power by which the one appears as many; neither real nor unreal (anirvachaniya, indescribable) |
| Avidya / Adhyasa (अध्यास) | Superimposition: ignorance projects the non-self onto the self, as a snake onto a rope (rajju-sarpa) or silver onto a shell |
| Vivartavada | The world is an apparent transformation of Brahman, not a real one |
| Jiva | The individual self is Brahman itself, appearing limited by ignorance, as space in a pot is the same as space outside |
| Ishvara | Brahman seen through maya as creator and Lord (saguna); real at the empirical level |
| Moksha | Not a new attainment but realising one’s identity with Brahman; possible in this life (jivanmukti) |
| Path | Jnana; with karma and bhakti as preparation that purifies the mind |
Three levels of reality (sattatraya)
| Level | What is real at this level | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Paramarthika (पारमार्थिक) | Ultimate: Brahman alone | Realisation |
| Vyavaharika (व्यावहारिक) | Empirical: the world, Ishvara, individual selves, ethics | Daily life, science, law |
| Pratibhasika (प्रातिभासिक) | Apparent: illusions and dreams | Snake seen in a rope |
Why 'the world is mithya' is not 'the world does not exist'
At the vyavaharika level, the world is fully real: duties, laws and ethics apply. Shankara himself was intensely active: he travelled across India, debated and founded mathas. Mithya means dependent and not ultimately real, not non-existent.
Sadhana chatushtaya: the four qualifications of a seeker
- Viveka: discrimination between the eternal and the non-eternal
- Vairagya: detachment from the fruits of action, here and hereafter
- Shat-sampat: six virtues: shama (mind control), dama (sense control), uparati (withdrawal), titiksha (forbearance), shraddha (faith), samadhana (concentration)
- Mumukshutva: intense desire for liberation
Then: shravana (hearing the teaching), manana (reflection), nididhyasana (deep meditation).
Other Vedanta Schools
| School | Acharya | Relation of jiva and world to Brahman | World |
|---|---|---|---|
| Advaita (non-dualism) | Shankara | Identity; difference is due to ignorance | Mithya (vivarta) |
| Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism) | Ramanuja | One Brahman qualified by souls and matter, which are its “body” (sharira-shariri) | Real |
| Dvaita (dualism) | Madhva | Eternal difference (the five differences: God–soul, God–matter, soul–soul, soul–matter, matter–matter) | Real |
| Dvaitadvaita (difference-and-non-difference) | Nimbarka | Both different and non-different | Real |
| Shuddhadvaita (pure non-dualism) | Vallabhacharya | Non-dual without maya; world and souls are Brahman’s real manifestation; grace (pushti) | Real |
| Achintya Bhedabheda (inconceivable difference-and-non-difference) | Chaitanya | Inconceivably both one and different | Real |
Chhattisgarh angle
Vallabhacharya, founder of Shuddhadvaita and the Pushtimarg, was born at Champaran in Raipur district in 1479. A Mains answer on Vedanta schools can name him as Chhattisgarh’s link to the Vedanta tradition. For his life and the bhakti context, see Indian Thinkers and Bhakti and Sufi Movements.
Relevance of Advaita today
- Unity of all beings: the basis of universal brotherhood, non-discrimination and compassion.
- Neo-Vedanta: Swami Vivekananda’s “practical Vedanta” turned Advaita into a call for social service (“serve man as God”).
- Tolerance: one reality, many names, supports religious harmony.
- Ethics of detachment: the seeker’s virtues (shama, dama, titiksha) are qualities of a good administrator.
- Critique: the doctrine of maya has been criticised (by Ramanuja and by modern social reformers) for weakening the motivation to change an “unreal” world; the vyavaharika level answers this in part.
Memory Tricks
Founders in pairs: 'Good Kids, Kind Parents, Just Brothers'
Gautama (Nyaya) – Kanada (Vaisheshika) · Kapila (Sankhya) – Patanjali (Yoga) · Jaimini (Mimamsa) – Badarayana (Vedanta).
Pramana ladder: 'C-B-S-N-P-B'
Charvaka 1 · Buddhist (and Vaisheshika) 2 · Sankhya (and Yoga) 3 · Nyaya 4 · Prabhakara 5 · Bhatta (and Advaita) 6.
“Can Big Students Never Pass Boards?”
Ashtanga: 'Ya-Ni-A-Pra-Pra-Dha-Dhya-Sa'
Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana, Samadhi: two “Pra"s in the middle, then “Dha-Dhya”.
Vedanta: count the 'one'
Shankara: only One. Ramanuja: One with qualities. Madhva: Two, always. Nimbarka: Two and One. Vallabha: One, purely, without maya. Chaitanya: One and Two, inconceivably.
Don’t Confuse
| This | vs | That |
|---|---|---|
| Parinamavada: real transformation (Sankhya) | vs | Vivartavada: apparent transformation (Advaita) |
| Satkaryavada: effect pre-exists (Sankhya, Vedanta) | vs | Asatkaryavada: effect is new (Nyaya-Vaisheshika) |
| Sankhya: many purushas, real prakriti, no God needed | vs | Advaita: one Brahman, world is maya |
| Purva Mimamsa (Jaimini): ritual, dharma | vs | Uttara Mimamsa / Vedanta (Badarayana): Brahman, knowledge |
| Kaivalya (Sankhya–Yoga): isolation of purusha | vs | Moksha (Advaita): realisation of identity with Brahman |
| Gaudapada: Mandukya Karika | vs | Govindapada: Shankara’s direct teacher |
| Shuddhadvaita (Vallabha, Champaran) | vs | Dvaitadvaita (Nimbarka) |
Common Mistakes
Traps in answers and MCQs
- “All six orthodox schools are theistic.” Classical Sankhya and Purva Mimamsa do not need a creator God. They are astika because they accept the Veda.
- “Sankhya and Yoga differ completely.” Yoga accepts Sankhya’s metaphysics and adds Ishvara and a practical method.
- “Vaisheshika had seven categories from the start.” Kanada listed six; abhava was added later.
- “Advaita says the world is unreal like a dream.” The world is empirically real (vyavaharika); only ultimately is it mithya. Dreams are a lower level (pratibhasika).
- “Vallabhacharya taught Advaita.” He taught Shuddhadvaita, which rejects maya.
- “Nyaya’s inference has three members, like the syllogism.” Nyaya uses five members.
Practice
All questions below are original practice questions written in CGPSC style. They are not previous-year questions.
Level 1: Foundation
- The earliest surviving text of the Sankhya school is the ______ of ______.
- Name the last three limbs of Ashtanga Yoga, which together form samyama.
- In Advaita, the empirical level of reality is called ______.
Answers
- Sankhya Karika of Ishvarakrishna.
- Dharana, dhyana, samadhi.
- Vyavaharika.
Level 2: Prelims-style MCQs (concept checks)
Q1. Consider the following statements:
- Classical Sankhya explains the world through two independent principles, purusha and prakriti.
- The Yoga school rejects the existence of Ishvara.
- According to Sankhya, the effect pre-exists in its material cause.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 and 3 only
- (b) 2 only
- (c) 1 and 2 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer and explanation
(a) 1 and 3 only. Sankhya is dualist and holds satkaryavada (effect pre-exists in the cause, as curd in milk). Statement 2 is wrong: Yoga accepts Ishvara as a special purusha, which is why it is called theistic Sankhya.
Q2. Match List I (School) with List II (Founder):
| List I | List II |
|---|---|
| A. Nyaya | 1. Jaimini |
| B. Vaisheshika | 2. Badarayana |
| C. Purva Mimamsa | 3. Gautama |
| D. Vedanta | 4. Kanada |
- (a) A-4, B-3, C-1, D-2
- (b) A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1
- (c) A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2
- (d) A-1, B-4, C-3, D-2
Answer and explanation
(c) A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2. Gautama (Akshapada) wrote the Nyaya Sutra, Kanada the Vaisheshika Sutra, Jaimini the Mimamsa Sutra and Badarayana the Brahma Sutra.
Q3. Which school accepts all six pramanas, including arthapatti and anupalabdhi?
- (a) Nyaya
- (b) Sankhya
- (c) Prabhakara Mimamsa
- (d) Advaita Vedanta
Answer and explanation
(d) Advaita Vedanta (along with Bhatta Mimamsa). Nyaya accepts four, Sankhya three, and Prabhakara Mimamsa five (it rejects anupalabdhi).
Q4. Which of the following correctly matches the Vedanta school with its acharya?
- (a) Dvaitadvaita — Madhva
- (b) Shuddhadvaita — Vallabhacharya
- (c) Vishishtadvaita — Nimbarka
- (d) Achintya Bhedabheda — Ramanuja
Answer and explanation
(b). Vallabhacharya, born at Champaran near Raipur (1479), taught Shuddhadvaita. Dvaita is Madhva’s, Dvaitadvaita Nimbarka’s, Vishishtadvaita Ramanuja’s and Achintya Bhedabheda Chaitanya’s.
Q5. The rope-and-snake illustration in Advaita Vedanta explains:
- (a) the real transformation of prakriti into the world
- (b) superimposition (adhyasa), by which the world appears on Brahman
- (c) the five-membered inference of Nyaya
- (d) the atomic composition of matter
Answer and explanation
(b). In dim light, a rope is mistaken for a snake. The snake is not “created”; it is superimposed on the rope by ignorance. Likewise the world is an apparent transformation (vivarta) of Brahman. Option (a) is Sankhya’s parinamavada.
Level 3: Mains Answer Writing
Q1. (60 words) Distinguish between Sankhya dualism and Advaita non-dualism.
Model answer outline
- Sankhya: two ultimate realities: many conscious purushas and one unconscious prakriti; the world is a real transformation of prakriti (parinamavada); liberation is kaivalya, the purusha’s isolation through viveka; no creator God needed.
- Advaita: one reality, Brahman; the world is an apparent transformation (vivartavada) through maya; jiva is Brahman; liberation is realising that identity.
Q2. (150–200 words) Explain the main doctrines of Shankara’s Advaita Vedanta. Is the doctrine of maya an obstacle to social action?
Model answer outline
- Intro: Shankara (8th century, Kaladi) systematised Advaita through commentaries on the Prasthanatrayi and founded four mathas.
- Doctrines:
- Brahman alone is real (nirguna, Sat-Chit-Ananda).
- The world is mithya: an appearance through maya (vivartavada; rope and snake).
- Jiva is Brahman; bondage is avidya/adhyasa.
- Three levels of reality: paramarthika, vyavaharika, pratibhasika.
- Moksha by jnana; jivanmukti possible; sadhana chatushtaya as preparation.
- Is maya an obstacle?
- Critique: if the world is unreal, why reform it? Ramanuja and social reformers raised versions of this objection.
- Reply: the world is fully real at the vyavaharika level, where duty and ethics apply; Shankara himself was socially active. Vivekananda’s practical Vedanta derived service from Advaita: since the same Brahman is in all, serving people is worship.
- Conclusion: Read correctly, Advaita supports equality and selfless service rather than withdrawal.
Quick Revision Table
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Pairs | Nyaya–Vaisheshika; Sankhya–Yoga; Mimamsa–Vedanta |
| Founders | Gautama, Kanada, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini, Badarayana |
| Nyaya | 16 padarthas; 4 pramanas; 5-membered inference; Udayana; Gangesha’s Navya-Nyaya |
| Vaisheshika | Paramanu; 6 padarthas + abhava; 9 dravyas |
| Sankhya | Purusha–prakriti; 3 gunas; 25 tattvas; satkaryavada (parinama); kaivalya; Ishvarakrishna |
| Yoga | Chitta-vritti-nirodha; 4 padas; 8 limbs; 5 kleshas; Ishvara accepted |
| Mimamsa | Dharma = Vedic injunction; apaurusheya Veda; apurva; Kumarila (6), Prabhakara (5) |
| Vedanta texts | Prasthanatrayi: Upanishads, Brahma Sutra, Gita |
| Advaita | Shankara (Kaladi; teacher Govindapada; Gaudapada’s Mandukya Karika); maya, adhyasa, vivarta; 3 levels; jivanmukti |
| Four mathas | Sringeri, Dwarka, Puri, Jyotirmath |
| Other Vedanta | Ramanuja, Madhva, Nimbarka, Vallabha (Champaran, 1479), Chaitanya |
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
- The six astika darshanas come in three pairs; astika means accepting the Veda, not belief in God.
- Nyaya gives logic and four pramanas; Vaisheshika gives atomism and categories.
- Sankhya is dualist (purusha–prakriti, 25 tattvas, satkaryavada); Yoga adds Ishvara and the eight-limbed discipline.
- Mimamsa defends Vedic ritual and the Veda’s authority; Vedanta interprets the Upanishads through the Prasthanatrayi.
- Advaita: Brahman alone is real, the world is mithya (vivarta, maya), jiva is Brahman, liberation is knowledge; other Vedanta schools, including Vallabha’s Shuddhadvaita (born at Champaran), restore the reality of the world.
What’s Next
- Indian Philosophy — Quick Revision — the whole chapter on one page
- Indian Thinkers — Vallabhacharya, Vivekananda, Aurobindo and Gandhi carry these ideas forward
- Western Thinkers — compare Sankhya dualism with Descartes, and Advaita with Spinoza and Hegel
- Bhakti and Sufi Movements — the acharyas’ philosophies became popular devotion
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